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80 EFFECTS ON HEALTH Research into the effects of exposure to air and road traffic noise has shown that increases in night-time noise exposure or in noise exposure during the sleep latency period have a statistically significant adverse impact on subjects’ ability to get off to sleep and on sleep inception periods. 4.7 EFFECTS ON PERFORMANCE 4.7.1 COGNITION AND SWS Jan Born and co-workers at the University of Lübeck (Wagner, Gais and Born, 2001; Benedict et al., 2004; Born and Wagner, 2004; Gais and Born, 2004; Drosopoulos, Wagner and Born, 2005) have reported interesting research and put forward intriguing hypotheses on the relation between noise exposure, sleep loss and subsequent cognitive performance. They conclude that declarative memory benefits mainly from sleep periods dominated by SWS, while there is no consistent benefit for this memory from periods rich in REM sleep. This points to the importance of SWS for declarative memory. Since sleep in the early night is dominated by SWS, in contrast to late night when REM sleep dominates, this would imply that noise in the early night, for example aircraft noise before midnight, would be particularly damaging to memory and related cognitive functions. However, this implication has not yet been explicitly tested. That is, there seems to be a certain risk for impoverished memory due to noise in the early night, but there is as yet no graded quantification about whether ordinary pre-midnight noise levels around large airports are sufficient to make a difference to SWS. We also lack graded quantification about the relationship between impoverished SWS and the resulting effect on different aspects of declarative memory. Thus, in terms of Fig. 1.1 we have evidence for the arrow marked (b), but we do not have enough information to say whether the strength of arrow (a) is sufficient to cause reduced SWS in field settings. Furthermore, since children’s memory systems pass through developmental changes and are not structured in the same way as for adults, it would be interesting to know to what extent the Born group results are also valid for children, and whether the depth of children’s sleep counteracts or enhances SWS dominance in the early night. 4.7.2 COMPARING DAYTIME AND NIGHT-TIME NOISE EXPOSURE As implied by Fig. 1.1, the relation between noise exposure and resulting effects on cognition should be analysed somewhat differently depending on whether the noise exposure takes place during the day or night. Analysing the cognitive effects of daytime noise exposure is fairly straightforward. For night-time noise exposure, however, any effects on cognition can either be a more or less direct effect of the noise exposure, or an indirect effect mediated by reduced sleep or sleep quality. Also, comparing, for example, memory and learning functions when exposed to NIGHT NOISE GUIDELINES FOR EUROPE
EFFECTS ON HEALTH 81 night-time noise, in contrast to daytime noise, shifts the focus of analysis away from encoding (in memory) or acquisition (in learning) while experiencing noise, to a focus on storing the material to be remembered or learnt while asleep (compare to daytime noise effects on cognition as reported by Hygge, Evans and Bullinger, 2002; Stansfeld et al., 2005). Thus, assuming that people are mainly asleep at night, all cognitive work that relies on the intake of information, listening or reading is not relevant. In all, this suggests that studies of daytime noise levels cannot be used much to give rough estimates of the effects of night-time exposure. 4.7.3 COMPARING CHILDREN AND ADULTS How far can effects of daytime noise levels on children be generalized to give a rough estimate of the effects on adults? Are children more sensitive? Judging from earlier daytime studies of children and adults doing the same cognitive tasks while exposed to noise, children are not more sensitive than adults to noise (Boman, Enmarker and Hygge, 2004), but they perform at a lower level than the adults both in noisy and in quiet environments. Thus, it could be said that children are not more vulnerable to (daytime) noise in relation to cognitive performance, but since so much more cognitive work is expected from children while in school, their learning environment and their cognitive tasks can be said to be more noise vulnerable than corresponding environments for adults. 4.7.4 NOISE AND AFTER-EFFECTS An argument can be made for noise as a stressor leading to reduced motivation (Glass and Singer, 1972), which in turn may act as a mediator of impaired cognitive performance. Along this line of reasoning, night-time noise may be more potent in inducing reduced motivation than daytime noise, but for the time being this is only a conjecture and has not been tested. 4.7.4.1 The role of restoration Noise can be viewed both as a source of stressful demands and as a constraint on restoration. Noise levels and noise sources that are not by themselves particularly demanding during the waking hours of the day, may nevertheless be quite effective in blocking and constraining when they appear in periods meant to be restorative, such as sleep (Hartig, 2004). To what extent this idea is applicable to night-time noise exposure has not yet been explored. 4.7.4.2 Noise and communication Some of the difficulties with children’s responses to noise are related to problems in speech perception. A metric that weights night-time exposure more heavily is, in fact, less useful since children’s auditory processing with parents and teachers is obviously more critical during waking hours. 4.8 EFFECTS ON PSYCHIC DISORDERS Noise exposure at night may be more disturbing than daytime noise because it interferes with rest and sleep at a time when people want to relax. It seems plausible that night-time noise might have a particular effect on mental health. However, there is lit- NIGHT NOISE GUIDELINES FOR EUROPE
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NIGHT NOISE GUIDELINES FOR EUROPE
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Keywords NOISE - ADVERSE EFFECTS -
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IV CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 EFFECTS OF NI
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VI ABSTRACT The WHO Regional Office
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VIII LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Torbjörn
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X EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PROCESS OF DEVE
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XII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY An example of
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XIV EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Effect Indica
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XVI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 50 100 Fig. 4
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XVIII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY For the pri
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2 METHODS AND CRITERIA impact on th
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4 METHODS AND CRITERIA ITALY: NETHE
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6 METHODS AND CRITERIA There are im
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8 METHODS AND CRITERIA use and heal
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10 METHODS AND CRITERIA L night = L
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12 METHODS AND CRITERIA 1.3.6 BACKG
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14 METHODS AND CRITERIA Fig. 1.8 sh
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16 SLEEP AND HEALTH • Stage 2 req
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18 SLEEP AND HEALTH Table 2.3 Mean
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20 SLEEP AND HEALTH vegetative, mot
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22 SLEEP AND HEALTH mal range. The
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24 SLEEP AND HEALTH Type Behavioura
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26 SLEEP AND HEALTH sible beyond th
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28 SLEEP AND HEALTH Early reports d
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Page 62 and 63: 42 SLEEP AND HEALTH 2.5 ANIMAL STUD
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Page 66 and 67: 46 EFFECTS ON SLEEP ing sleep stage
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Page 78 and 79: 58 EFFECTS ON HEALTH for aircraft:
Page 80 and 81: 60 EFFECTS ON HEALTH acoustic and n
Page 82 and 83: 62 EFFECTS ON HEALTH Noise Exposure
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Page 98 and 99: 78 EFFECTS ON HEALTH No particular
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Page 106 and 107: 86 EFFECTS ON HEALTH lage newly exp
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Page 110 and 111: 90 EFFECTS ON HEALTH In a United Ki
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Page 114 and 115: 94 EFFECTS ON HEALTH noise-related
Page 116 and 117: 96 EFFECTS ON HEALTH have had exper
Page 118 and 119: 98 EFFECTS ON HEALTH • number of
Page 120 and 121: 100 EFFECTS ON HEALTH Furthermore,
Page 122 and 123: 102 GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Page 132 and 133: 112 Ancoli-Israel S, Roth T (1999).
Page 134 and 135: 114 Bistrup ML (2003). Prevention o
Page 136 and 137: 116 Cartwright J, Flindell I (2000)
Page 138 and 139: 118 der Streßforschung (Bonner Ver
Page 140 and 141: 120 Goto K, Kaneko T (2002). Distri
Page 142 and 143: 122 Ishihara K (1999). The effect o
Page 144 and 145: 124 Kogi K, Ohta T (1975). Incidenc
Page 146 and 147: 126 Marth E et al. (1988). Fluglär
Page 148 and 149: 128 Nieminen P et al. (2002). Growt
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130 Reyner et al. (1995). Patterns
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132 Suter AH (1992). Noise sources
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134 Weed DL (2000). Interpreting ep
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136 APPENDICES Term/acronym Definit
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138 APPENDICES APPENDIX 3. ANIMAL S
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140 APPENDICES cause a certain habi
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142 APPENDICES • Acute exposure t
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144 APPENDICES dence indicate that
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146 APPENDICES Fig.1 Effects of 12
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) 148 APPENDICES 50 40 Young rats O
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150 APPENDICES neuronal degeneratio
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152 Gesi M et al. (2002a). Morpholo
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154 APPENDIX 4. NOISE AND SLEEP IN
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156 APPENDICES during quiet sleep (
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158 APPENDICES (American Academy of
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160 APPENDICES cents, 12.2% of adol
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162 REFERENCES Abel SM (1990). The
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The WHO Regional Office for Europe
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