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84 EFFECTS ON HEALTH level of exposure to aircraft noise and symptoms. In the West London Survey, “tinnitus”, “burns, cuts and minor accidents”, “ear problems” and “skin troubles” were all more common in areas of high noise exposure (Tarnopolsky, Watkins and Hand, 1980). Acute symptoms such as “depression”, “irritability”, “difficulty getting off to sleep”, “night waking”, “skin troubles”, “swollen ankles” and “burns, cuts and minor accidents” were particularly common in high noise areas. However, apart from “ear problems” and “tinnitus”, 20 out of 23 chronic symptoms were more common in low noise environments. Symptoms did not increase with increasing levels of noise. This is possibly related both to more social disadvantage and associated ill health among residents in low aircraft noise exposure areas and the possible unwillingness of chronically unhealthy individuals to move into potentially stressful high noise exposure areas. Nevertheless, it would not exclude an effect of noise in causing some acute psychological symptoms. As the majority of aircraft noise exposure is during the day, daytime exposure is likely to have greater effects than nighttime exposure. Many of the effects of noise in industrial and teaching settings may be related primarily to disturbances in communication. 4.8.2 NOISE EXPOSURE AND MENTAL HOSPITAL ADMISSION RATES Much of the concern with the possible effects of noise on mental health began with the study of admissions to psychiatric hospitals from noisy areas. Early studies found associations between the level of aircraft noise and psychiatric hospital admissions, both in London (Abey Wickrama et al., 1969) and Los Angeles (Meecham and Smith, 1977). These results have been criticized on methodological grounds (Chowns, 1970; Frerichs, Beeman and Coulson, 1980) and a replication study by Gattoni and Tarnopolsky (1973) failed to confirm these findings. Jenkins et al., (1979) found that age-standardized admission rates to a London psychiatric hospital over four years were higher as the level of noise of an area decreased, but lower noise areas were also central urban districts, where high admission rates would be expected. In a further extensive study of three hospitals (Jenkins, Tarnopolsky and Hand, 1981), high aircraft noise was associated with higher admission rates in two hospitals, but in all three of them, admission rates seemed to follow non-noise factors more closely; the effect of noise, if any, could only be moderating that of other causal variables but not overriding them. Kryter (1990), in a re-analysis of the data, found “a more consistently positive relation between level of exposure to aircraft noise and admissions rates”. Undoubtedly, the route to hospital admission is influenced by many psychosocial variables that are more potent than exposure to noise. Therefore, whether or not noise causes psychiatric disorder is more suitably answered by studying a community sample. 4.8.3 NOISE EXPOSURE AND PSYCHIATRIC MORBIDITY IN THE COMMUNITY In a community pilot study carried out in West London, Tarnopolsky et al. (1978) found no association between aircraft noise exposure and either GHQ scores (Goldberg, 1972) (dichotomized 4/5, low scorers/high scorers) or estimated psychiatric cases (Goldberg et al., 1970). This was the case even when exposure to road traffic noise was controlled, except in three subgroups: persons “aged 15–44 of high education” (41%, 14% p
EFFECTS ON HEALTH 85 noise might have an effect in causing morbidity within certain vulnerable subgroups. In the subsequent West London Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity (Tarnopolsky, Morton-Williams and Barker, 1980), 5885 adults were randomly selected from within four aircraft noise zones, according to the Noise and Number Index. No overall relationship was found between aircraft noise and the prevalence of psychiatric morbidity either for GHQ scores or for estimated numbers of psychiatric cases, using various indices of noise exposure. However, there was an association between noise and psychiatric morbidity in two subgroups: “finished full-time education at age 19 years +”, and “professionals”. These two categories, which had a strong association with each other, were combined and then showed a significant association between noise and psychiatric morbidity (X2 = 8.18, df 3 p
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NIGHT NOISE GUIDELINES FOR EUROPE
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Keywords NOISE - ADVERSE EFFECTS -
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IV CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 EFFECTS OF NI
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VI ABSTRACT The WHO Regional Office
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VIII LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Torbjörn
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X EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PROCESS OF DEVE
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XII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY An example of
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XIV EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Effect Indica
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XVI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 50 100 Fig. 4
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XVIII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY For the pri
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2 METHODS AND CRITERIA impact on th
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4 METHODS AND CRITERIA ITALY: NETHE
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6 METHODS AND CRITERIA There are im
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8 METHODS AND CRITERIA use and heal
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10 METHODS AND CRITERIA L night = L
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12 METHODS AND CRITERIA 1.3.6 BACKG
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14 METHODS AND CRITERIA Fig. 1.8 sh
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16 SLEEP AND HEALTH • Stage 2 req
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18 SLEEP AND HEALTH Table 2.3 Mean
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20 SLEEP AND HEALTH vegetative, mot
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22 SLEEP AND HEALTH mal range. The
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24 SLEEP AND HEALTH Type Behavioura
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26 SLEEP AND HEALTH sible beyond th
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28 SLEEP AND HEALTH Early reports d
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30 SLEEP AND HEALTH ents’ reports
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32 SLEEP AND HEALTH Although cortic
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Page 100 and 101: 80 EFFECTS ON HEALTH Research into
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Page 122 and 123: 102 GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Page 132 and 133: 112 Ancoli-Israel S, Roth T (1999).
Page 134 and 135: 114 Bistrup ML (2003). Prevention o
Page 136 and 137: 116 Cartwright J, Flindell I (2000)
Page 138 and 139: 118 der Streßforschung (Bonner Ver
Page 140 and 141: 120 Goto K, Kaneko T (2002). Distri
Page 142 and 143: 122 Ishihara K (1999). The effect o
Page 144 and 145: 124 Kogi K, Ohta T (1975). Incidenc
Page 146 and 147: 126 Marth E et al. (1988). Fluglär
Page 148 and 149: 128 Nieminen P et al. (2002). Growt
Page 150 and 151: 130 Reyner et al. (1995). Patterns
Page 152 and 153: 132 Suter AH (1992). Noise sources
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134 Weed DL (2000). Interpreting ep
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136 APPENDICES Term/acronym Definit
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138 APPENDICES APPENDIX 3. ANIMAL S
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140 APPENDICES cause a certain habi
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142 APPENDICES • Acute exposure t
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144 APPENDICES dence indicate that
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146 APPENDICES Fig.1 Effects of 12
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) 148 APPENDICES 50 40 Young rats O
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150 APPENDICES neuronal degeneratio
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152 Gesi M et al. (2002a). Morpholo
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154 APPENDIX 4. NOISE AND SLEEP IN
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156 APPENDICES during quiet sleep (
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158 APPENDICES (American Academy of
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160 APPENDICES cents, 12.2% of adol
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162 REFERENCES Abel SM (1990). The
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The WHO Regional Office for Europe
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