Evaluating ICT for Education in Africa - Royal Holloway, University of ...

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esearch was situated at the point of convergence between the three and alsofaced the additional challenges of being conducted in partnership, utilisingmultiple qualitative methods, working with vulnerable children andoperating in situations of absolute poverty (Wilson 1992). In addition, thenormative agenda of improving current practice meant that, by necessity,ethical concerns were outworked throughout the analysis as well as simplyexplained here as abstract notions.I begin the discussion of ethics by briefly outlining two categories of metaethics,identifying the challenges of each and recognising the need for acontextualised approach to employing both. The limitations of universalistethical codes, informed consent and the maxim to „do no harm‟ are then eachconsidered, providing a framework for the alternative approach adopted inthis thesis. I then present my principles-based approach of imagination, careand appropriate use of power, illustrating them with a case study of onlineresearch ethics. In closing I document the ethical checklist that was utilisedthroughout the research process and informed all interactions withstakeholders.Ethics are conventionally categorised through adopting either a teleologicalor deontological position. The first is commonly associated withutilitarianism and the belief that ethics are primarily determined by the likelyconsequences of an action rather than on the basis of fundamental laws. Thisis most obviously understood by the axiom of operating in whatever way willresult in the greatest good, or least harm, for the greatest number of people.In contrast, a deontological position rests on principles which remainconstant and should be adhered to as such regardless of context orconsequence (Thomas 1996).Neither of these positions is on their own sufficient for constructing aneffective ethical framework. A solely deontological position is poorlyequipped to grapple with the specifics of contextualised and ambiguousresearch settings and a solely teleological position falls short in tending todefault towards relativism. Although contrasting perspectives, both are102
partially based on the flawed notion that an individual or institution engagingin decision making regarding ethics can maintain a panoptic perspective,with absolute ability to quantify value and reductively assess consequences,or assume total knowledge regardless of cultural context and conditions. Inthe light of this, my research sought to resist dichotomising the ethicalapproach into either of these two Western dominated philosophical traditionsand instead recognised the need for embracing nuance and ambiguity. AsBirch (2002 p.6) notes, dependence on either of these traditions may servesignificantly to „mask the complexities of ethical considerations that can beencountered in qualitative research‟.One of the significant attractions of aligning behind a traditional approach toethics is the provision of „a firmly anchored epistemological security fromwhich to venture out and conduct research‟ (England 1994 p.81). Whilstmuch current social research has progressed beyond adherence to traditionalmeta-ethics norms it still maintains a widespread tendency to offer nearunanimous perspectives regarding what constitutes appropriate ethicalconduct in research. The consequences of such epistemological security mayresult in a somewhat sterile scenario whereby researchers simply subscribe tothe ethical modus operandi established by predecessors. Throughout myresearch, I was forced to confront such shared assumptions and recognise thelimitations inherent within them. In order to illustrate the process of doingthis I now outline the contention within the widely accepted maxims of„informed consent‟ and „do no harm‟.3.7.1 Informed consentThe notion of informed consent constitutes a central tenet of muchparticipant-based ethics amongst social researchers (Hay 1998, Edwards andMauthner 2002), particularly in regard to appropriate interaction withchildren and other vulnerable populations (Holloway and Valentine 2000,Valentine et al. 2001). The majority of debate is framed within well-definedterms with clear emphasis on ensuring rigorous compliance with informedconsent guidelines and complete understanding from participants (Miller103
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the research findings to emphasise
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3.4.5 Drawings ....................
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5.4.1 Plurality of methods ........
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8.3 Implications of aspiration ....
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List of figuresFigure 2.1: MDGs (UN
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List of appendicesAppendix A: Resul
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NOLNet Namibian Open Learning Netwo
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I began this PhD two weeks after mo
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number of ICT for education program
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innovative alternatives, and the ce
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2.2 Substance, rationale and approa
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progress towards the EFA goals has
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The critique posed to the market th
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etween these two extremes as a resu
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promoted to become „the character
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appropriate application in recognit
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can instigate both harm and good, i
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Such an undertaking is central to t
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- Availability of computer networks
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assisting towards this end. The imp
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eing rooted in specific socio-cultu
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evaluation: „An evaluation carrie
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Central within this is recognising
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Page 53 and 54: that conceptualises ICT for develop
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Page 57 and 58: attempt to impose overarching solut
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Page 61 and 62: Garcia-Montes et al. 2006). This is
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Page 71 and 72: 3. Methodology3.1 IntroductionThe p
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Page 79 and 80: organisations, explanation of the p
Page 81 and 82: 3.3.1 EuroTalk LtdEuroTalk (http://
Page 83 and 84: further two weeks in Ethiopia in De
Page 85 and 86: I was invited by InWEnt to particip
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Page 91 and 92: drawings was as a precursor to anci
Page 93 and 94: Photo 3.3: Students completing the
Page 95 and 96: prior to implementation of the prog
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Page 101: conversations with respondents, as
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Page 111 and 112: It cannot be guaranteed that resear
Page 113 and 114: Embrace the heterogeneity of commun
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Page 119 and 120: Figure 4.1: ICT for development pol
Page 121 and 122: Photo 4.1: Students exploring the I
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Page 127 and 128: widespread lack of textbooks and in
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Page 131 and 132: in order to reflect the involvement
Page 133 and 134: Photo 4.4: Students in Ethiopia exp
Page 135 and 136: on the donation of solar panels fro
Page 137 and 138: Photo 4.6: Teacher training in Rema
Page 139 and 140: 4.3.10 Programme futureThe XO 5000
Page 141 and 142: 4.4.3 The importance of ICT for edu
Page 143 and 144: theme focussed on the lack of budge
Page 145 and 146: esponses, three dominant themes eme
Page 147 and 148: The experience of interacting with
Page 149 and 150: „In the institutions we have work
Page 151 and 152: Access to a wide variety of resourc
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assessment that emphasised the tran
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have been mitigated had the project
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and the need for sustained probing.
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Descriptionof methodFocus groupsLoc
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Classroomobservations24 in Malawi a
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5.3.1 Baseline testingDiscussion at
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indicated that although apparently
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The lack of evidence from the basel
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Choose the correct answer and write
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eflection upon the format suitabili
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you can follow that. It gives you g
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Following the final iteration of gr
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the method within its appropriate c
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more innovative approach to catalys
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to identify significant themes that
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„Everything that the teachers wro
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(Shurmer-Smith 2002, Herbert 2000).
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5.4 Lessons for effective operation
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and be provided with research assis
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problematic problem but it is the o
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elieving that methods that are base
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teachers maintaining many external
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weekend then they will be there and
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coffee and dancing together in a ro
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emphases can serve to reinforce eac
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eferring back to previous experienc
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Tilahun reflected on the reasons be
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The limited emphasis on quantifying
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5.5 Implications for capacity devel
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improve and build capacity. Similar
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These issues allude to the bigger p
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esponses to questions regarding par
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Month Activity Challenges Strengths
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communicate alternative withappropr
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EuroTalk are keen for thefindings t
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6.2 Why partnership?The contributor
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(Unwin 2005b). The notion of tri-se
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assess the efficacy of the partners
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6.3.1 Contrasting bottom linesPartn
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to engage with the development pote
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that could be distributed specifica
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sector was the most significant cha
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My suggestion that I might speak wi
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approach is found in assessing the
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the fieldwork. The effect of the ob
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(13/04/08). Although prevented from
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„We should have worked more close
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since the language being used faile
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demonstrated in an interview with E
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discussions and various unsuccessfu
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of partnership (Marriot and Goyder
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„‟When we think of monitoring s
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the impact on ECBP from spending ti
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„It has to do with the history of
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6.7.2 Potential to redefine practic
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monitoring and evaluation can provi
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Photo 7.2: Desks and benches in cla
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quantifying educational outputs. It
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of technology within education in A
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pedagogies, and new approaches to t
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eLearning in Africa. Training was h
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Second, alongside the enthusiasm ma
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in Ethiopia meant that the monitori
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„Akili has big potential - becaus
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„The main problem we are facing i
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colonial approach‟ (09/12/08) to
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The aim of providing free and unive
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Photo 7.4: Lessons in Malawi conduc
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Photo 7.5: Girls in Rema herding go
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teachers working in primary schools
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Teachers in Rema (22/04/08) gave a
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disaster. The contrasting potential
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2006). This is demonstrated by the
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Indeed, between these two extremes
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„I use the laptop a lot at home f
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Critical thinking constitutes a sig
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misconception regarding the nature
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Bloom’s Original Taxonomy(1956)An
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associated negative consequences to
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adherence to a flawed promotion of
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„We are not interested with the t
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failing to complete primary educati
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has received some attention (Naraya
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The traditional dominant narrative
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Children reported that they felt mo
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from Golgota eagerly affirmed this,
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and 2 compared to Standard 3 and 4.
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two case studies from Ethiopia. It
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as a good way to communicate with p
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increasingly apparent that Rema was
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evaluation and sustained an overly
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symbol of something good that Malaw
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aspiration could be viewed as poten
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journalist whose article was publis
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and powerful if we have OLPC here i
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If every child in Ethiopia who is e
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population live on less than $2 per
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However, as is now explored, the ve
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the right to profit from sale of al
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8.5.2 Private sector needs creation
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merely another context within which
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Commodity fetishism through aspirat
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The absurdity of the situation was
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„As we are a part of globalizatio
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of aspiration. Engaging effectively
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(Ellul 1964) does delegitimize uncr
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motivations for partnership. The im
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educational challenges and opportun
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choice of theoretical foundation, w
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It is therefore my hope that the me
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9.2.5 Ongoing potential for transfo
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undoubtedly become more so in the f
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esearch undertaken for this thesis.
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9.5 Education: a final wordThe thes
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BibliographyAAG, 2009. Statement of
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Batchelor, S., Evangelista, S., Hea
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Development Department Education Gr
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learning: a sourcebook for evaluato
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evaluation in education. Studies in
Page 391 and 392:
DFID, 2008. Private sector developm
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EFA, 2001. Dakar framework for acti
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Fadel, C. and Lemke, L. 2006. Techn
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G8, 2007. Growth and responsibility
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Greene, J., 2005. Mixed methods. In
Page 401 and 402:
Harrow, J., 2001. Capacity building
Page 403 and 404:
Hine, C., 2005. Virtual methods and
Page 405 and 406:
Illich, I., 1969. Celebration of aw
Page 407 and 408:
Oliver, G., (ed) 2005. Maitland+20:
Page 409 and 410:
Lasonen, J., Kemppainen, R., and Ra
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Mansell, R., 2005. The fragility of
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Mercer, C., 2006. Telecentres and t
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Mutume. G., 2006. Harnessing the in
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Olukoshi, A., 2006. African scholar
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Paul, R. and Elder, L. 2005. The mi
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Roy, S., 2005. Globalisation, ICT a
Page 423 and 424:
Shadish, W, Cook, T. and Campbell D
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Sperling, G., 2008. A global educat
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Thomas, J, 1996. Introduction: a de
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UNESCO, 2006a. Teachers and educati
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Unwin, T., 2009a. Conclusions. In U
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Walker, J, 2005. Self-determination
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Winch, C., 2005. Autonomy as an edu
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Appendices437
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439
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441
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Interviewee Company Details of Resp
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UK LtdJohn Connell Cisco Brief resp
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Appendix C: Sample of Malawi indivi
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Tell me, when you see a school like
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Appendix D: Sample of Ethiopia stud
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classes‟.For final question promp
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Children InformationInformation fro
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Appendix F: Sample of Malawi focus
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Appendix G: Sample of Ethiopia teac
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esponsibility of being apilot schoo
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laptop make to the livesof the chil
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How have you found thisdiscussion?O
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demonstrate, the eight questions an
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the technology solution and initiat
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made that rule. At the weekend I pl
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When you are writing the diary plea
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Do you think the laptops and Akili
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done?..............................
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...................................
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Appendix M: Baseline test in Malawi
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HIV?a. Yesb. No5. Are there medicin
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It is important that the test is co
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Teachers can teach students how to
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Maths1. What is the LCM of 5, 10 an
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HealthPlease explain how you can co
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- Please explain why you think thes
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495
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In wanting to do the best evaluatio
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Baselines (inc. retrospective const
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Appendix Q: Report from eLA worksho
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Incorporating more qualitative meth
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Breakout workshop 3 - DonorsProblem
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It is difficult to ensure the objec
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appease donors and secure future fu
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to demonstrate thatsomething works
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Insights regarding effective evalua
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Appendix S: Data table from Malawi
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A 10% increase in correct answers r
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with headgain overall perspective o
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