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454 FRANK E. SYSYNThe question of national tension is particularly emotion-laden instudies on the Khmel'nyts'kyi revolt. Ukrainian historians — the Cossackchroniclers of the eighteenth century, the populists of the nineteenthcentury, the members of the "state" historical school of theearly twentieth century, and present-day Soviet Ukrainian historians— have all tended to view it as a revolt of the Ukrainian peopleagainst Polish masters. Soviet historians have usually depicted it as a"national-liberation war" which expressed the desire of Ukrainians tothrow off Polish rule and unite with their Russian "brothers." Whilesome Polish scholars have seen the war as a Polish-Ukrainian/Ruthenianconflict, most have emphasized social, economic, and, to alesser degree, religious causes. Most nineteenth-century Polish historianssupported a restoration of a "historic Poland" and a "Polishnation" encompassing Ukrainian lands, a program that did not readilyadmit past Polish-Ukrainian conflict. Twentieth-century scepticismabout the role of national consciousness and national tensions in earlymodern revolts has reinforced the earlier position of Polish historiography.The issue of the national element in the Khmel'nyts'kyi uprising isfar from resolution. Any answer must be based on a careful descriptionof the "national" or "proto-national" communities of the seventeenthPolsce XV-XVII," Kwartalnik Historyczny 52, no. 1 (1938): 15-33; Janusz Tazbir,"Świadomość narodowa," in Rzeczpospolita i świat: Studia z dziejówkultury XVII wieku (Wrocław, 1971), pp. 23-43; the chapter "Świadomośćnarodowa szlachty" in Tazbir, Kultura szlachecka w Polsce, pp. 85-103; and JanJakubowski, Studia nad stosunkami narodowościowymi w Litwie przed UniąLubelską (Warsaw, 1912) (Prace Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, WydziałII, Nauk Antropologicznych, Społecznych, Historii i Filozofii, 7). Discussionsof the development of Polish national consciousness in the Middle Ages should alsobe consulted: Roman Gródecki, "Powstanie polskiej świadomości narodowej naprzełomie XIII i XIV wieku," Przegląd Wpółczesny, no. 52 (1935), pp. 3-35;Roman Heck, "Problemy świadomości historycznej średniowiecznego społeczeństwapolskiego," in Roman Heck, ed., Dawna świadomość historyczna wPolsce, Czechach i Słowacji (Wrocław, etc., 1978); Bronisław Geremek, "Metodybadań nad świadomością społeczeństwa polskiego w średniowieczu," KwartalnikHistoryczny 85, no. 2 (1978): 311-14. On Ruthenian-Ukrainian nationalconsciousness, see the works of Viacheslav Lypyns'kyi. Also see K. H. Huslystyi,Do pytannia pro utvorennia ukrains'koi natsii (Kiev, 1957). Regrettably the majorwork Ukraintsi, edited by Huslystyi and published in a provisional form, has beenblocked from final publication in Kiev: H. Huslystyi, ed., Ukraintsi: Istorikoetnohrafichnamonohrafiia. V dvokh tomax (Kiev, 1960). The question of Rutheniannational consciousness from 1569 to 1648 is the subject of a recent doctoraldissertation by Teresa Chynczewska-Henne done at the Institute of History of thePolish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, "Świadomość narodowa Kozaczyzny iszlachty ukraińskiej w XVII wieku."