apple-pascal-1.3-manual

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Other llc'sIf you have an Apple Ile without the enhancement that allows you to use3Vz-inch disk drives, your system will check the internal disk drive for abootable disk. If it cannot find one or if the disk drive door is open, thesystem will stop and you will see a message asking you to check yourdisk drive.Startirng Up an Alternative ConfigurationPut your boot disk in the disk drive from which you wish to start up. Yourstartup drive must be the first disk drive installed in its particular slot (youcannot boot from the second disk drive installed on any controller card).Turn on your system; or press CONTROL-RE.SET or o-CONTROL-RESET,depending on your system. Some configurations will start up at this point,some will hang, and others will display a message.In general, if your system hangs with a 514-inch disk drive spinning or givesyou a message to check your disk drive, follow these steps:o Enter BASIC by pressing CONTROL-RESET twice.o Enter the BASIC command PR#n, where n is the slot number of yourstartup drive. This command sends the system to the slot numbercontaining the drive with your boot disk in it.What Happens During Start UpThe initial loading of the system software into the computer's memory iscommonly called starting up or booting the program.The first stage of booting Pascal is the loading of the P-code interpreter,SYSTEM.APPLE. The second stage loads the Pascal operating system,SYSTEM.PASCAL, and the file SYSTEM.MISCINFO. Starting up with onedisk that contains all three of these files is called a one-stage boot.If space constraints make it inconvenient to have all of these files on asingle disk, you can use a two-stage boot. If you have only one 514-inchdisk drive, you are most likely to need a two-stage boot. In this case, youbegin the startup operation with a disk that contains the fileSYSTEM.APPLE in the appropriate drive. When its part of the startupoperation is complete, you remove it and insert a disk that contains the filesSYSTEM.PASCAL and SYSTEM.MISCINFO.I-10Getting Started
Any disk used in a startup process may be called a boot disk. The diskcontaining the file SYSTEM.PASCAL is normally kept in the startup or bootdrive during Pascal system operations and is called the system disk or thePascal system disk.Starting up the system as if you had just turned on the power is sometimescalled a cold boot or a cold start. You can accomplish the same thing bypressing CONTROL-RESET on an Apple II or Apple II Plus, or6-CONTROL-RESET on an Apple Ile or an Apple Ile; or by invoking the Quitcommand from the main Command line.If the system performs only the second-stage of the startup process, it isoften called a warm boot or a warm start. This is what happens whenyou invoke the Initialize command from the main Command line. The effectof the Initialize command (warm start) is to initialize system variables andreload SYSTEM.MISCINFO. The effects of these different kinds of restartcommands are summarized in the following table.Table 2. Pascal Startup LevelsCommandPOWER ON orCONTROL-RESET or6-CONTROL-RESETor QuitInitializeFiles ReloadedSYSTEM.APPLESYSTEM.PASCALSYSTEM.MISCINFOSYSTEM.PASCALSYSTEM.MISCINFOCalledCold startWarm startIf you want to perform a warm or cold start on a system with two 514-inchdisk drives, you can accomplish either with APPLEl: in the startup drive.On a system with only one 514-inch disk drive, however, you canaccomplish a warm start only after you have started the system and haveAPPLEO: in the startup drive.What Happens During Start Up 1-11
Page 1 and 2: Apple Apple II Pascal 1.3•,_
Page 5: Apple II Pascal 1.3
Page 8 and 9: your system. To be sure that your s
Page 10 and 11: How to Read This ManualHardware Not
Page 13 and 14: Part IGetting Started
Page 15 and 16: System Notes 18Using a 40-Column Vi
Page 17: PrefacePart I describes the steps y
Page 20 and 21: To provide a focus for discussion i
Page 22 and 23: Enhanced lieIf you have an enhanced
Page 24 and 25: If you are not going to use your Pr
Page 26 and 27: Using a Pascal-Formatted ProFileYou
Page 30 and 31: How Pascal Assigns Volume NumbersA
Page 32 and 33: Using System PromptsAs soon as you
Page 34 and 35: Make Backups of Your System DisksWe
Page 36 and 37: A Warning.&.Warning6. Note that bot
Page 38 and 39: The 128K and 64K Pascal Systems Com
Page 40 and 41: o The TAB key is absent, which mean
Page 42 and 43: If you have an Apple II or II Plus
Page 44 and 45: Once you transfer the system files,
Page 46 and 47: If you are using an SO-column displ
Page 48 and 49: II Plus users have made the require
Page 50: APPLE3:SYSTEM.APPLEFORMATTER.CODEFO
Page 54 and 55: ContentsFigures and TablesxviiPREFA
Page 56 and 57: Moving Files 41Transfer 41Copying a
Page 58 and 59: The Editor Commands 93Insert 96Text
Page 60 and 61: CHAPTER5The CompilerIntroduction 13
Page 62 and 63: Local Labels 178Constants 179Locati
Page 64 and 65: CHAPTER 7The LinkerIntroduction 208
Page 66 and 67: APPENDIX2ACommand SummariesAll Leve
Page 68 and 69: APPENDIX2FDemonstration ProgramsInt
Page 71 and 72: PrefaceProgram Preparation Tools is
Page 73 and 74: Chapter 1An OverviewII-1
Page 75 and 76: Pascal FilesA file is defined as a
Page 77 and 78: There are two parts to a workfile:
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o On the 128K Pascal system, the sp
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The Command LevelYou reach the Comm
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Figure 2-1. The Command LevelComman
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CompileTyping c while at the Comman
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InitializeTyping 1 from the Command
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Commands Usable at All LevelsCertai
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Chapter 3The FilerII-21
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Bad-blocksExamineTests a disk to se
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B I~ XBad-blocks ExamineThe Filer s
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To erase your response to a Filer p
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Standard Volume Names and NumbersTa
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emoved from the filename. You shoul
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filename that may not be ignored. T
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You may use only one wildcard in a
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A system with two 5~-inch disk driv
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You can list any portion of a direc
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APPLEr.l:SYSTEM.PASCALSYSTEM.MI SC
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When you press RETURN, the system c
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You can use wildcards with the Tran
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The display clears, and then the fo
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One Disk DriveOm:H:>rive NoteTo cop
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Prompt: Remove what file ?Response:
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as replacement strings) given in th
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You do not need to put a volume on
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ZeroThe Zero command "erases" a spe
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QuitThe Quit command, which is invo
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Observing filename conventions, you
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One-Drive MethodOn one-drive system
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If there is already a workfile SYST
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If you see that one of your disks c
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An N response to this prompt return
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-Filename ConventionsVolume name wi
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IntroductionThe Pascal Editor helps
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4. If you are editing a program, yo
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Editing With a 31/2-lnch Disk Drive
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As you have already learned if you
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Starting a New FileIf a workfile is
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For example, if the cursor is on th
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Apple II or II PlusIt is legal to i
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To leave the Editor, press G for Qu
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Notice that not all commands affect
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Cursor MovesYou can use repeat-fact
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Figure 4-3. The EditorCommandEditor
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Insert-The Insert command allows yo
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and Filling to True. For example, t
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.A Warning The automatic remarginin
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The Editor remembers where the curs
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This leaves you with something like
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To c0py the text, typeMYDISK:SUPERM
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ExchangeYou use the Exchange comman
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After you press the SPACE bar, the
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ExampleSuppose you have Token searc
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DirectionThe Replace command operat
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Same-String OptionIf you type s in
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Jump-The Jump command moves the cur
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After you have typed CONTROL-C to a
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Set EnvironmentThe Editor lets you
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40=Column !DisplaysFilling should g
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the right place in the string) and
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When you operate a skateboard in ex
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Quit-You use the Quit command to ex
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WriteThe Write command saves the fi
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Special Commands SummaryYou will fi
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Chapter 5The CompilerIl-137
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Two 51/.oi·lnch Disk DrivesOne 51/
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If there is no text workfile, you w
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The period at the end prevents the
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o Pressing the SPACE bar instructs
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Execution Error MessagesThe informa
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Default option: {$1-}{$1 filename}
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The "Range Check" OptionThis option
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The { $N +} option should be placed
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The "User Program" OptionThis optio
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IntroductionEven if you write most
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If you attempt to assemble without
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After the source and object files f
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This is similar to the choice that
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First, use the Filer's New command
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The Assembly ListingAfter you have
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01HlllllCurrent memory available:0
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ADRSPUSHPAGE -AB l!HHJ 41 ALOOPMC -
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If you have a printer connected to
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The statements making up the body o
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local LabelsA local label has a dol
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An at sign(@) before an expression
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PAGE - 1 TEMP1 FILE:lllllll01Curren
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ConventionsWhen you write assembly-
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parameter names are given. For exam
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Example:TEMP .BYTE 4The associated
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.ABSOLUTEThis directive forces the
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Example:.MACRO HELPSTA %1LDA %2.END
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LDAill formed operandECdit,,[ SPACE
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name in both the program and the ro
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The use of the .DEF and .REF direct
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.LIST and .NOLISTThese two directiv
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File Directive.INCLUDECauses the sp
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Data Directives[label].ASCII""Inser
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Chapter 7The LinkerIl-207
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Linking Using the link CommandYou i
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If you press RETURN in response to
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linking Using the Run CommandIf the
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Chapter 8The LibrarianII-215
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Librarian, that are invoked by the
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The Input FilesThe Librarian now di
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lJ Slot to copy into?2 Slot to copy
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Copyright Notice Lost: The Libraria
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If the file you specify is not a co
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enter library name: #S:samplelist l
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Chapter 9Utility Programs11-229
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Two 51/4-lnch DrivesOne 51/4-lnch D
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Using an Ex:temal TerminalThe Apple
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Vertical Move DelayValue: The numbe
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Key to Delete LinePressing Line Del
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Parameter Field NameERASE TO END OF
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Reconfiguring the SystemTo use an e
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Changing GOTOXY CommunicationThe GO
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The screen will showAPPLE GOTOXY BI
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Using the Linefeed UtilityFrom the
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If you respond by typing v for Yes,
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This appendix contains summaries of
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LinkSwapExecuteRunUser restartIniti
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Volume CommandsVolumesList-director
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Editor Command SummarySpecial Comma
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ExchangeReplaceReplaces the charact
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Appendix 2BSystem FilesII-263
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CommandLinkExecuteRunFiles Needed65
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Filename Contents of File Use of Fi
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APPLE3:lPASCAL:SYSTEM.APPLE 32 Cont
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A Complex Sample ProgramThis append
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Figure 2C-l. Creating a Complex Pro
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The Regular UnitUse the Editor to c
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PROCEDURE INTRINUPROC;BEGINWRITELNC
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;As you will see,. CONST LENGTH.PUB
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cPutting the Pieces TogetherThis se
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LLink what host codefile? MAINOpeni
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Appendix 2DMaking a Turnkey DiskII-
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Appendix 2EMaking and Using Exec Fi
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Terminator Characters: The terminat
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.& Warningis actually sent to the p
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Appendix2FDemonstration Programs11-
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What follows is a description of ho
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Assuming that the ROT ATE procedure
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The outer REPEAT first calls MAKETR
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position in the CORNER variable for
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If you wish to modify, compile, and
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1. Starting at the root node, FLIPP
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Program CROSSREF contains examples
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On completion of the design, the pr
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If you type N for No, you will agai
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Appendix 2GPascal 1/0 Device Volume
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Appendix 2HError Messages11-317
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ErrorNumberError Message10 I/O erro
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ErrorNumberError Message9 Identifie
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Compiler Error MessagesWhen the Pas
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ErrorNumberError Message123 Missing
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ErrorNumberError Message202 String
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Part IIILanguage Manual
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Block Syntax 13Declarations 14Const
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CHAPTER5Dynamic VariablesUsing Dyna
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CHAPTER7Program ControlsRepetition
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Character File I/O Operations 173IN
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Library Name Files 231Making a Libr
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Program Chaining 275The SETCHAIN Pr
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Procedure Call 305File Type 305REWR
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The RESET Macro 335The SWITCH Macro
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CHAPTER5Dynamic VariablesPointer Ty
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Value Specifier Syntax 17 4READ Pro
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CONCAT Function 300FOR Statement 30
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PrefaceThis part of the Apple II Pa
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Supporting these chapters are sever
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Apple II Pascal 1.3 is a version of
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Pascal Versus BASICIf you are a BAS
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Chapter 2Program StructureIll-7
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The program block contains a single
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o Identifiers are the names of such
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Pascal SyntaxPascal has its own syn
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string or an array or some other ty
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A More Complex ExampleHere is anoth
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esult is called a compound statemen
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Here are the rules for composing yo
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CommentsGood programming practice i
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Chapter 3Simple Data TypesIll-25
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New data types are created by the t
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String and CHAR constants may not c
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The INTEGER TypeIntegers are whole
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A Technical Note: Pascal often sets
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This declaration creates the new da
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Chapter4Structured Data TypesIIl-37
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declare a longer maximum. In both c
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Here are some examples:TYPE ALPHANU
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The ARRAY TypeA Pascal array is an
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We could now make the following arr
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You can manipulate the elements of
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o Each corresponding dimension must
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The syntax for writing the field li
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Information A bout the Example: Thi
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o The limits on the number and type
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These are the rules by which Pascal
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ecord variable of CHECKBOOK as CHEC
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Chapter 5Dynamic Variableslll-61
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Here is an example of this process
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o The base type may be an identifie
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o Don't try to change the variant,
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MARK and RELEASE are used in pairs.
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Chapter 6Operations on DataIII-71
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By combining these elements, you ca
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Each kind of factor has its own syn
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AssignmentsThe assignment statement
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Arithmetic OperationsApple Pascal p
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single-character operators, DIV mus
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ABS CROUND CX/Y))ABS C2-X>The ABS f
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Random Number Fum::tionsApple Pasca
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FUN CT ION RAND2 : INTEGER;VAR MAX,
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o Two records of congruent type may
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Be Careful: CHR does not check to s
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The SCAN FunctionThis function scan
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Your use of MOVELEFT or MOVERIGHT m
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The CONCAT FunctionCONCAT accepts a
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VARS : STRIHGC1l;o With COPY, INSER
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Bit Interpretation of Scalar TypesE
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.' Bit Logic ExamplesHere are some
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This is because Pascal tries to int
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Chapter 7Program ControlsIII-107
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Repetition StatementsPascal provide
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Observe these rules and cautions wh
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Here is an example of a REPEAT stat
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Here are are two examples of IF sta
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The above statement can be clarifie
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It accomplishes the same job as the
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Here is an example of a GOTO statem
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The EXIT procedure is seldom essent
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Procedures and functions are the su
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In both cases, the parameter list i
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Special Note About Long Integers: T
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PROCEDURE ALPHA CHI, LO REAL; FACTO
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Here are the rules governing the re
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o The real variable METAL declared
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After you have written its heading
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Chapter 9Assembly-Language Routines
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EXTERNAL Procedures and FunctionsPR
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The evaluation stack may have alrea
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To summarize, the structure of the
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If your routine has accomplished ai
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An ExampleThe following sample, del
Page 583:
sample procedure for Pascal, declar
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Apple Pascal provides a variety of
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File VariablesUnlike most other var
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External FilesThere are three categ
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Pascal types volume numbers, volume
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although it permits inputs as well.
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Be Careful: Using RESET with a file
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o If a file has any records in it,
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In particular, disk drives usually
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Here is a sample use of SEEK:SEEK C
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until a character was typed. With t
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Certain specific rules apply to the
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o READ with a CHAR variable reads o
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o Except when READLN is used with a
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BLOCKREAD transfers data from an ex
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Both procedures are written with th
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Type "B" character checking: CONTRO
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When UNITSTATUS is called, it may a
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o SHIFT is TRUE if the oldest chara
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WHILE NOT keypress DD { reiterate u
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Chapter 11Screen GraphicsIII-195
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o DRA WBLOCK is a complex and power
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o If the graphic image has never be
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PENCOLOR and FILLSCREENTo set the c
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TURTLEX, TURTLEY, TURTLEANG, and SC
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ModeAction0 Fills area of screen wi
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If CHARTYPE is not called, the defa
Page 639 and 640:
Chapter 12Program Units111-209
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You can list any number of units af
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The process of compiling an Intrins
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64K Note: When compiling Program Un
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consists of the word INTERFACE foll
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preceded by the procedure or functi
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IMPLEMENTATION{A private procedure
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Changing Units and Host ProgramsOne
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Chapter 13LibrariesIII-225
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o You can create a Program Library
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SYSTEM.LIBRARYSYSTEM.LIBRARY is the
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library Name FilesA Library Name Fi
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Using One library File With Two Pro
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Using Seve1ral Library Files With S
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program. It directs the Compiler to
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Chapter 14Compiler OptionsIII-239
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Finally, you can insert a space cha
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Chapter 15Large Program ManagementI
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The Compiler might fail to process
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o Use MARK and RELEASE to optimize
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When an Intrinsic Unit is compiled,
Page 681 and 682:
Remember: If your program has any s
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Loading of SEGMENT Procedures and F
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PROGRAM THREE;USES BIGUHIT;SEGMEHT
Page 687:
swapping is obviously undesirable,
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This chapter rounds out the Apple P
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o You can write assembly-language E
Page 694 and 695:
Here is the source text for the 650
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Program Unit Required! The Program
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VAR UpKey : CHAR;DownKey : CHAR;PRO
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Setting the High Character BitOn Ap
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The CR character is used in files o
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After READ with a CHAR variable and
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Program chaining is accomplished by
Page 708 and 709:
SWAPON, SWAPGPON, and SWAPOFF¥¥¥
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Using SETCV AL and GETCV AL, you ca
Page 712 and 713:
Here is a typical process for creat
Page 714 and 715:
The following sample procedure assu
Page 716 and 717:
VARLoop,WordsinArray,BytesCalcBuffe
Page 718 and 719:
FUNCTION BRANCH CH : INTEGER> PTR;V
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Identifierletterletterdigitundersco
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String TypeSTRING-~-----------.....
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Record Type Variant Parttagidentifi
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Expressionsimpleexpression___ __, .
Page 728 and 729:
Factorunsignedconstantvariablerefer
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Variable Referencevariableidentifie
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IF Statementexpresssion statement s
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Function Definitionnewidentifier1--
Page 736 and 737:
RESET Procedurefileidentifierstring
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READ ProcedurefileidentifierREADLN
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Program Unit CompilationProgram Uni
Page 742 and 743:
Implementation SectionIMPLEMENTATIO
Page 744 and 745:
This appendix contains further deta
Page 746 and 747:
Underflow,.The underflow exception
Page 748 and 749:
This section describes how real val
Page 751 and 752:
Appendix 3CMemory Allocations for D
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ecord tag fields given an identifie
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Note that the array declarationsPAC
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Pascal stores ordinary (not packed)
Page 759 and 760:
Appendix 3DUseful Assembly-Language
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The RMVBIAS MacroThis macro removes
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.ELSE. IFSTX.ELSE. IFSTY.EHDC. ENDC
Page 765 and 766:
yte = The address of the byte whose
Page 767 and 768:
count = The number of bytes to move
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The NOTBITBR MacroThis macro is the
Page 771 and 772:
Appendix 3ESummary of 6502 OpcodesI
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6502 Microprocessor InstructionsADC
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Instruction CodesAmmblyNa ma Operal
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Auembly HEXNa ma Operation Addr..,l
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Ammbly HEXNam11 Opmllon Addressing
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Hex Operation Codes00- BAK01 - ORA
Page 783 and 784:
Appendix3FTablesIII-353
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Reserved Words and Predeclared Iden
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Table F-2C. Identifiers Declared in
Page 789:
Summary of Size limitsTable F-4. Su
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ContentsFigures and TablesviiPREFAC
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CHAPTER4The P-Machine Instruction S
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APPENDIX4AMemory Maps64K System Mem
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Figure 3-5The Order of Local Variab
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Chapter 1The Pascal EnvironmentIV-I
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Figure 1-1. The Pascal 64K SystemlE
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Figure 1-3. The Pascal 128K System:
Page 809 and 810:
Main Memory PointersNP points to th
Page 811 and 812:
Table 1-1. Version Flags Set at Loc
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.INTERP+4Address of the location th
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Chapter 2Disk FilesIV-13
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{First, some general declarations r
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GET, READ, and READLN convert DLE-b
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Figure 2-2. A Typical Codefilehigh
Page 823 and 824:
Segments are not nested in codefile
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RECORDDISKINFO: ARRAY[0 .. 15l OFRE
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By the Way: Figure 2-4 shows lower
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o Bit 12 of the SEG INFO word is un
Page 831 and 832:
Figure 2-5. Construction of Interfa
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Figure 2-6. The Code Part of a Code
Page 835 and 836:
Figure 2-7. A Typical Procedurehigh
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o PARAMETER SIZE: This field specif
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Relocation TablesA relocation table
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LITYPES = CEOFMARK, UNITREF, GLOBRE
Page 843 and 844:
ICOFFSET field specifies the locati
Page 845:
Procedure and Function Linker Infor
Page 848 and 849:
The previous chapter discussed the
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o BASE: BASE procedure pointer. Thi
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were part of the Pascal system glob
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activation records; data segments d
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A procedure call causes the operati
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Chapter4The P-Machine Instruction S
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Formats of Variables on the StackVa
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the structure when padded. Before s
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localSLDL_l 216 Short load local wo
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Byte A.rray HandlingLDB 190STB 191L
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LPA 208LDP 186STP 187UB,Load a pack
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Noninteger ComparisonsThe next six
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LNOT 147 Logical NOT. Push the one'
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XJPI72WI,W2, ,W3Case jump. WI is w
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EXIT 158 4 Exit from procedure. tos
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DecimalOpcode Mnemonic Full Name Lo
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DecimalOpcode Mnemonic Full Name Lo
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64K System MemorylExternal Language
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128K System Auxiliary MemoryAuxilia
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Blocks in a Code Segmenthigh disk a
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Segment Dictionarylow disk addresse
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Code Part of a Code Segment~.r--'-"
Page 894 and 895:
6502 Procedure Attribute Tablebaser
Page 896 and 897:
Program Stackhigh memory addressesS
Page 898:
Activation Recordhigh memory addres
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ContentsBibliographyReference Books
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General Pascal TextbooksClancy, Mic
Page 907 and 908:
Glossaryactivation: The execution o
Page 909 and 910:
cold start: A startup procedurethat
Page 911 and 912:
file: See disk file, external file,
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length attribute: The part of along
Page 915 and 916:
POINTERLIST: A list of pointersin L
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segment table: A section of thehigh
Page 919:
USES declaration: The part of aPasc
Page 922 and 923:
o 48K Runtime System (Version 1.2 o
Page 925 and 926:
IndexCast of Characters*(asterisk)
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ooleansassignment statements and II
Page 929 and 930:
DDATA III-215data directives II-187
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Execute command, from Commandlevel
Page 933 and 934:
GPWROFTEN III-83RANDOM III-85ROUND
Page 935 and 936:
Link command, from Command levelII-
Page 937 and 938:
0ODD function III-90OF III-117-118o
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parameters for III-130PENCOLOR III-
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Replace command ll-113-117delimiter
Page 943 and 944:
storageof arrays III-328of booleans
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UNLINKED-INTRINS IV-26unsignedconst
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Apple Computer, Inc.20525 Mariani A
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