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long as the calling procedure or function is active. For example, consider thefollowing program:PROGRAM FOUR;USES BIGUHIT;SEGMENT PROCEDURE HUGEPROC;BEGIHEND;PROCEDURE CALLHUGEPROC;VAR I : I HTEGER;BEG IiiFOR 1:=1 TO 188 DO HUGEPROCEND;PROCEDURE CALLCALCULATE;VAR I: I HTEGER;BEG IiiFOR 1:=1 TO 188 DO CALCULATE {A procedure in BIGUHIT}END;BEG Iii{$ti+} {Keeps BIGUHIT out of memory until needed.}HUGEPROC;CALCULATE;CALLHUGEPROC;CALLCALCULATEEND.This resembles the previous example, but the CALLHUGEPROC andCALLCALCULATE procedures are new. As written, these two procedureshave a problem: since HUGEPROC is a SEGMENT procedure, it will beswapped in from disk 100 times when CALLHUGEPROC executes, andbecause of the "no load" option in the main program body, BIG UNIT will beswapped in 100 times when CALLCALCULATE executes. This amount ofIII-256Chapter 15: Large Program Management
swapping is obviously undesirable, and it can be prevented by using the"resident" option in each of these procedures:PROCEDURE CALLHUGEPROC;VAR I : I tiTEGER;BEGIHUR HUGEPROC}FOR I:=1 TO 1BB DO HUGEPROCEHD;PROCEDURE CALLCALCULATE;VAR I : I HTEGER;BEGIHUR BIGUHinFOR I:=1 TO 1BB DO CALCULATE {A procedure in BIGUHIT}EHD;Now HUGEPROC will be kept in memory as long as CALLHUGEPROC isactive, and BIGUNIT will be kept in memory as long as CALLCALCULATEis active.Program SegmentationIII-257
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Apple Apple II Pascal 1.3•,_
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Apple II Pascal 1.3
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your system. To be sure that your s
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How to Read This ManualHardware Not
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Part IGetting Started
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System Notes 18Using a 40-Column Vi
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PrefacePart I describes the steps y
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To provide a focus for discussion i
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Enhanced lieIf you have an enhanced
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If you are not going to use your Pr
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Using a Pascal-Formatted ProFileYou
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Other llc'sIf you have an Apple Ile
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How Pascal Assigns Volume NumbersA
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Using System PromptsAs soon as you
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Make Backups of Your System DisksWe
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A Warning.&.Warning6. Note that bot
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The 128K and 64K Pascal Systems Com
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o The TAB key is absent, which mean
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If you have an Apple II or II Plus
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Once you transfer the system files,
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If you are using an SO-column displ
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II Plus users have made the require
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APPLE3:SYSTEM.APPLEFORMATTER.CODEFO
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ContentsFigures and TablesxviiPREFA
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Moving Files 41Transfer 41Copying a
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The Editor Commands 93Insert 96Text
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CHAPTER5The CompilerIntroduction 13
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Local Labels 178Constants 179Locati
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CHAPTER 7The LinkerIntroduction 208
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APPENDIX2ACommand SummariesAll Leve
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APPENDIX2FDemonstration ProgramsInt
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PrefaceProgram Preparation Tools is
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Chapter 1An OverviewII-1
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Pascal FilesA file is defined as a
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There are two parts to a workfile:
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o On the 128K Pascal system, the sp
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The Command LevelYou reach the Comm
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Figure 2-1. The Command LevelComman
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CompileTyping c while at the Comman
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InitializeTyping 1 from the Command
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Commands Usable at All LevelsCertai
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Chapter 3The FilerII-21
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Bad-blocksExamineTests a disk to se
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B I~ XBad-blocks ExamineThe Filer s
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To erase your response to a Filer p
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Standard Volume Names and NumbersTa
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emoved from the filename. You shoul
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filename that may not be ignored. T
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You may use only one wildcard in a
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A system with two 5~-inch disk driv
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You can list any portion of a direc
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APPLEr.l:SYSTEM.PASCALSYSTEM.MI SC
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When you press RETURN, the system c
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You can use wildcards with the Tran
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The display clears, and then the fo
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One Disk DriveOm:H:>rive NoteTo cop
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Prompt: Remove what file ?Response:
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as replacement strings) given in th
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You do not need to put a volume on
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ZeroThe Zero command "erases" a spe
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QuitThe Quit command, which is invo
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Observing filename conventions, you
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One-Drive MethodOn one-drive system
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If there is already a workfile SYST
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If you see that one of your disks c
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An N response to this prompt return
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-Filename ConventionsVolume name wi
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IntroductionThe Pascal Editor helps
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4. If you are editing a program, yo
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Editing With a 31/2-lnch Disk Drive
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As you have already learned if you
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Starting a New FileIf a workfile is
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For example, if the cursor is on th
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Apple II or II PlusIt is legal to i
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To leave the Editor, press G for Qu
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Notice that not all commands affect
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Cursor MovesYou can use repeat-fact
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Figure 4-3. The EditorCommandEditor
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Insert-The Insert command allows yo
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and Filling to True. For example, t
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.A Warning The automatic remarginin
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The Editor remembers where the curs
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This leaves you with something like
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To c0py the text, typeMYDISK:SUPERM
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ExchangeYou use the Exchange comman
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After you press the SPACE bar, the
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ExampleSuppose you have Token searc
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DirectionThe Replace command operat
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Same-String OptionIf you type s in
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Jump-The Jump command moves the cur
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After you have typed CONTROL-C to a
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Set EnvironmentThe Editor lets you
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40=Column !DisplaysFilling should g
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the right place in the string) and
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When you operate a skateboard in ex
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Quit-You use the Quit command to ex
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WriteThe Write command saves the fi
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Special Commands SummaryYou will fi
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Chapter 5The CompilerIl-137
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Two 51/.oi·lnch Disk DrivesOne 51/
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If there is no text workfile, you w
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The period at the end prevents the
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o Pressing the SPACE bar instructs
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Execution Error MessagesThe informa
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Default option: {$1-}{$1 filename}
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The "Range Check" OptionThis option
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The { $N +} option should be placed
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The "User Program" OptionThis optio
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IntroductionEven if you write most
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If you attempt to assemble without
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After the source and object files f
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This is similar to the choice that
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First, use the Filer's New command
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The Assembly ListingAfter you have
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01HlllllCurrent memory available:0
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ADRSPUSHPAGE -AB l!HHJ 41 ALOOPMC -
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If you have a printer connected to
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The statements making up the body o
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local LabelsA local label has a dol
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An at sign(@) before an expression
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PAGE - 1 TEMP1 FILE:lllllll01Curren
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ConventionsWhen you write assembly-
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parameter names are given. For exam
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Example:TEMP .BYTE 4The associated
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.ABSOLUTEThis directive forces the
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Example:.MACRO HELPSTA %1LDA %2.END
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LDAill formed operandECdit,,[ SPACE
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name in both the program and the ro
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The use of the .DEF and .REF direct
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.LIST and .NOLISTThese two directiv
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File Directive.INCLUDECauses the sp
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Data Directives[label].ASCII""Inser
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Chapter 7The LinkerIl-207
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Linking Using the link CommandYou i
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If you press RETURN in response to
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linking Using the Run CommandIf the
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Chapter 8The LibrarianII-215
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Librarian, that are invoked by the
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The Input FilesThe Librarian now di
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lJ Slot to copy into?2 Slot to copy
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Copyright Notice Lost: The Libraria
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If the file you specify is not a co
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enter library name: #S:samplelist l
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Chapter 9Utility Programs11-229
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Two 51/4-lnch DrivesOne 51/4-lnch D
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Using an Ex:temal TerminalThe Apple
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Vertical Move DelayValue: The numbe
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Key to Delete LinePressing Line Del
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Parameter Field NameERASE TO END OF
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Reconfiguring the SystemTo use an e
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Changing GOTOXY CommunicationThe GO
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The screen will showAPPLE GOTOXY BI
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Using the Linefeed UtilityFrom the
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If you respond by typing v for Yes,
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This appendix contains summaries of
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LinkSwapExecuteRunUser restartIniti
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Volume CommandsVolumesList-director
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Editor Command SummarySpecial Comma
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ExchangeReplaceReplaces the charact
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Appendix 2BSystem FilesII-263
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CommandLinkExecuteRunFiles Needed65
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Filename Contents of File Use of Fi
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APPLE3:lPASCAL:SYSTEM.APPLE 32 Cont
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A Complex Sample ProgramThis append
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Figure 2C-l. Creating a Complex Pro
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The Regular UnitUse the Editor to c
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PROCEDURE INTRINUPROC;BEGINWRITELNC
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;As you will see,. CONST LENGTH.PUB
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cPutting the Pieces TogetherThis se
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LLink what host codefile? MAINOpeni
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Appendix 2DMaking a Turnkey DiskII-
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Appendix 2EMaking and Using Exec Fi
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Terminator Characters: The terminat
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.& Warningis actually sent to the p
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Appendix2FDemonstration Programs11-
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What follows is a description of ho
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Assuming that the ROT ATE procedure
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The outer REPEAT first calls MAKETR
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position in the CORNER variable for
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If you wish to modify, compile, and
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1. Starting at the root node, FLIPP
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Program CROSSREF contains examples
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On completion of the design, the pr
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If you type N for No, you will agai
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Appendix 2GPascal 1/0 Device Volume
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Appendix 2HError Messages11-317
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ErrorNumberError Message10 I/O erro
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ErrorNumberError Message9 Identifie
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Compiler Error MessagesWhen the Pas
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ErrorNumberError Message123 Missing
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ErrorNumberError Message202 String
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Part IIILanguage Manual
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Block Syntax 13Declarations 14Const
Page 407 and 408:
CHAPTER5Dynamic VariablesUsing Dyna
Page 409 and 410:
CHAPTER7Program ControlsRepetition
Page 411 and 412:
Character File I/O Operations 173IN
Page 413 and 414:
Library Name Files 231Making a Libr
Page 415 and 416:
Program Chaining 275The SETCHAIN Pr
Page 417 and 418:
Procedure Call 305File Type 305REWR
Page 419 and 420:
The RESET Macro 335The SWITCH Macro
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CHAPTER5Dynamic VariablesPointer Ty
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Value Specifier Syntax 17 4READ Pro
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CONCAT Function 300FOR Statement 30
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PrefaceThis part of the Apple II Pa
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Supporting these chapters are sever
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Apple II Pascal 1.3 is a version of
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Pascal Versus BASICIf you are a BAS
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Chapter 2Program StructureIll-7
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The program block contains a single
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o Identifiers are the names of such
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Pascal SyntaxPascal has its own syn
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string or an array or some other ty
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A More Complex ExampleHere is anoth
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esult is called a compound statemen
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Here are the rules for composing yo
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CommentsGood programming practice i
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Chapter 3Simple Data TypesIll-25
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New data types are created by the t
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String and CHAR constants may not c
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The INTEGER TypeIntegers are whole
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A Technical Note: Pascal often sets
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This declaration creates the new da
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Chapter4Structured Data TypesIIl-37
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declare a longer maximum. In both c
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Here are some examples:TYPE ALPHANU
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The ARRAY TypeA Pascal array is an
Page 475 and 476:
We could now make the following arr
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You can manipulate the elements of
Page 479 and 480:
o Each corresponding dimension must
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The syntax for writing the field li
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Information A bout the Example: Thi
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o The limits on the number and type
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These are the rules by which Pascal
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ecord variable of CHECKBOOK as CHEC
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Chapter 5Dynamic Variableslll-61
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Here is an example of this process
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o The base type may be an identifie
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o Don't try to change the variant,
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MARK and RELEASE are used in pairs.
Page 501 and 502:
Chapter 6Operations on DataIII-71
Page 503 and 504:
By combining these elements, you ca
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Each kind of factor has its own syn
Page 507 and 508:
AssignmentsThe assignment statement
Page 509 and 510:
Arithmetic OperationsApple Pascal p
Page 511 and 512:
single-character operators, DIV mus
Page 513 and 514:
ABS CROUND CX/Y))ABS C2-X>The ABS f
Page 515 and 516:
Random Number Fum::tionsApple Pasca
Page 517 and 518:
FUN CT ION RAND2 : INTEGER;VAR MAX,
Page 519 and 520:
o Two records of congruent type may
Page 521 and 522:
Be Careful: CHR does not check to s
Page 523 and 524:
The SCAN FunctionThis function scan
Page 525 and 526:
Your use of MOVELEFT or MOVERIGHT m
Page 527 and 528:
The CONCAT FunctionCONCAT accepts a
Page 529 and 530:
VARS : STRIHGC1l;o With COPY, INSER
Page 531 and 532:
Bit Interpretation of Scalar TypesE
Page 533 and 534:
.' Bit Logic ExamplesHere are some
Page 535 and 536:
This is because Pascal tries to int
Page 537 and 538:
Chapter 7Program ControlsIII-107
Page 539 and 540:
Repetition StatementsPascal provide
Page 541 and 542:
Observe these rules and cautions wh
Page 543 and 544:
Here is an example of a REPEAT stat
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Here are are two examples of IF sta
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The above statement can be clarifie
Page 549 and 550:
It accomplishes the same job as the
Page 551 and 552:
Here is an example of a GOTO statem
Page 553:
The EXIT procedure is seldom essent
Page 556 and 557:
Procedures and functions are the su
Page 558 and 559:
In both cases, the parameter list i
Page 560 and 561:
Special Note About Long Integers: T
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PROCEDURE ALPHA CHI, LO REAL; FACTO
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Here are the rules governing the re
Page 566 and 567:
o The real variable METAL declared
Page 568 and 569:
After you have written its heading
Page 571 and 572:
Chapter 9Assembly-Language Routines
Page 573 and 574:
EXTERNAL Procedures and FunctionsPR
Page 575 and 576:
The evaluation stack may have alrea
Page 577 and 578:
To summarize, the structure of the
Page 579 and 580:
If your routine has accomplished ai
Page 581 and 582:
An ExampleThe following sample, del
Page 583:
sample procedure for Pascal, declar
Page 586 and 587:
Apple Pascal provides a variety of
Page 588 and 589:
File VariablesUnlike most other var
Page 590 and 591:
External FilesThere are three categ
Page 592 and 593:
Pascal types volume numbers, volume
Page 594 and 595:
although it permits inputs as well.
Page 596 and 597:
Be Careful: Using RESET with a file
Page 598 and 599:
o If a file has any records in it,
Page 600 and 601:
In particular, disk drives usually
Page 602 and 603:
Here is a sample use of SEEK:SEEK C
Page 604 and 605:
until a character was typed. With t
Page 606 and 607:
Certain specific rules apply to the
Page 608 and 609:
o READ with a CHAR variable reads o
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o Except when READLN is used with a
Page 612 and 613:
BLOCKREAD transfers data from an ex
Page 614 and 615:
Both procedures are written with th
Page 616 and 617:
Type "B" character checking: CONTRO
Page 618 and 619:
When UNITSTATUS is called, it may a
Page 620 and 621:
o SHIFT is TRUE if the oldest chara
Page 622 and 623:
WHILE NOT keypress DD { reiterate u
Page 625 and 626:
Chapter 11Screen GraphicsIII-195
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o DRA WBLOCK is a complex and power
Page 629 and 630:
o If the graphic image has never be
Page 631 and 632:
PENCOLOR and FILLSCREENTo set the c
Page 633 and 634:
TURTLEX, TURTLEY, TURTLEANG, and SC
Page 635 and 636: ModeAction0 Fills area of screen wi
Page 637 and 638: If CHARTYPE is not called, the defa
Page 639 and 640: Chapter 12Program Units111-209
Page 641 and 642: You can list any number of units af
Page 643 and 644: The process of compiling an Intrins
Page 645 and 646: 64K Note: When compiling Program Un
Page 647 and 648: consists of the word INTERFACE foll
Page 649 and 650: preceded by the procedure or functi
Page 651 and 652: IMPLEMENTATION{A private procedure
Page 653 and 654: Changing Units and Host ProgramsOne
Page 655 and 656: Chapter 13LibrariesIII-225
Page 657 and 658: o You can create a Program Library
Page 659 and 660: SYSTEM.LIBRARYSYSTEM.LIBRARY is the
Page 661 and 662: library Name FilesA Library Name Fi
Page 663 and 664: Using One library File With Two Pro
Page 665 and 666: Using Seve1ral Library Files With S
Page 667 and 668: program. It directs the Compiler to
Page 669 and 670: Chapter 14Compiler OptionsIII-239
Page 671 and 672: Finally, you can insert a space cha
Page 673 and 674: Chapter 15Large Program ManagementI
Page 675 and 676: The Compiler might fail to process
Page 677 and 678: o Use MARK and RELEASE to optimize
Page 679 and 680: When an Intrinsic Unit is compiled,
Page 681 and 682: Remember: If your program has any s
Page 683 and 684: Loading of SEGMENT Procedures and F
Page 685: PROGRAM THREE;USES BIGUHIT;SEGMEHT
Page 690 and 691: This chapter rounds out the Apple P
Page 692 and 693: o You can write assembly-language E
Page 694 and 695: Here is the source text for the 650
Page 696 and 697: Program Unit Required! The Program
Page 698 and 699: VAR UpKey : CHAR;DownKey : CHAR;PRO
Page 700 and 701: Setting the High Character BitOn Ap
Page 702 and 703: The CR character is used in files o
Page 704 and 705: After READ with a CHAR variable and
Page 706 and 707: Program chaining is accomplished by
Page 708 and 709: SWAPON, SWAPGPON, and SWAPOFF¥¥¥
Page 710 and 711: Using SETCV AL and GETCV AL, you ca
Page 712 and 713: Here is a typical process for creat
Page 714 and 715: The following sample procedure assu
Page 716 and 717: VARLoop,WordsinArray,BytesCalcBuffe
Page 718 and 719: FUNCTION BRANCH CH : INTEGER> PTR;V
Page 720 and 721: Identifierletterletterdigitundersco
Page 722 and 723: String TypeSTRING-~-----------.....
Page 724 and 725: Record Type Variant Parttagidentifi
Page 726 and 727: Expressionsimpleexpression___ __, .
Page 728 and 729: Factorunsignedconstantvariablerefer
Page 730 and 731: Variable Referencevariableidentifie
Page 732 and 733: IF Statementexpresssion statement s
Page 734 and 735: Function Definitionnewidentifier1--
Page 736 and 737:
RESET Procedurefileidentifierstring
Page 738 and 739:
READ ProcedurefileidentifierREADLN
Page 740 and 741:
Program Unit CompilationProgram Uni
Page 742 and 743:
Implementation SectionIMPLEMENTATIO
Page 744 and 745:
This appendix contains further deta
Page 746 and 747:
Underflow,.The underflow exception
Page 748 and 749:
This section describes how real val
Page 751 and 752:
Appendix 3CMemory Allocations for D
Page 753 and 754:
ecord tag fields given an identifie
Page 755 and 756:
Note that the array declarationsPAC
Page 757 and 758:
Pascal stores ordinary (not packed)
Page 759 and 760:
Appendix 3DUseful Assembly-Language
Page 761 and 762:
The RMVBIAS MacroThis macro removes
Page 763 and 764:
.ELSE. IFSTX.ELSE. IFSTY.EHDC. ENDC
Page 765 and 766:
yte = The address of the byte whose
Page 767 and 768:
count = The number of bytes to move
Page 769 and 770:
The NOTBITBR MacroThis macro is the
Page 771 and 772:
Appendix 3ESummary of 6502 OpcodesI
Page 773 and 774:
6502 Microprocessor InstructionsADC
Page 775 and 776:
Instruction CodesAmmblyNa ma Operal
Page 777 and 778:
Auembly HEXNa ma Operation Addr..,l
Page 779 and 780:
Ammbly HEXNam11 Opmllon Addressing
Page 781 and 782:
Hex Operation Codes00- BAK01 - ORA
Page 783 and 784:
Appendix3FTablesIII-353
Page 785 and 786:
Reserved Words and Predeclared Iden
Page 787 and 788:
Table F-2C. Identifiers Declared in
Page 789:
Summary of Size limitsTable F-4. Su
Page 794 and 795:
ContentsFigures and TablesviiPREFAC
Page 796 and 797:
CHAPTER4The P-Machine Instruction S
Page 798 and 799:
APPENDIX4AMemory Maps64K System Mem
Page 800 and 801:
Figure 3-5The Order of Local Variab
Page 803 and 804:
Chapter 1The Pascal EnvironmentIV-I
Page 805 and 806:
Figure 1-1. The Pascal 64K SystemlE
Page 807 and 808:
Figure 1-3. The Pascal 128K System:
Page 809 and 810:
Main Memory PointersNP points to th
Page 811 and 812:
Table 1-1. Version Flags Set at Loc
Page 813 and 814:
.INTERP+4Address of the location th
Page 815 and 816:
Chapter 2Disk FilesIV-13
Page 817 and 818:
{First, some general declarations r
Page 819 and 820:
GET, READ, and READLN convert DLE-b
Page 821 and 822:
Figure 2-2. A Typical Codefilehigh
Page 823 and 824:
Segments are not nested in codefile
Page 825 and 826:
RECORDDISKINFO: ARRAY[0 .. 15l OFRE
Page 827 and 828:
By the Way: Figure 2-4 shows lower
Page 829 and 830:
o Bit 12 of the SEG INFO word is un
Page 831 and 832:
Figure 2-5. Construction of Interfa
Page 833 and 834:
Figure 2-6. The Code Part of a Code
Page 835 and 836:
Figure 2-7. A Typical Procedurehigh
Page 837 and 838:
o PARAMETER SIZE: This field specif
Page 839 and 840:
Relocation TablesA relocation table
Page 841 and 842:
LITYPES = CEOFMARK, UNITREF, GLOBRE
Page 843 and 844:
ICOFFSET field specifies the locati
Page 845:
Procedure and Function Linker Infor
Page 848 and 849:
The previous chapter discussed the
Page 850 and 851:
o BASE: BASE procedure pointer. Thi
Page 852 and 853:
were part of the Pascal system glob
Page 854 and 855:
activation records; data segments d
Page 856 and 857:
A procedure call causes the operati
Page 859 and 860:
Chapter4The P-Machine Instruction S
Page 861 and 862:
Formats of Variables on the StackVa
Page 863 and 864:
the structure when padded. Before s
Page 865 and 866:
localSLDL_l 216 Short load local wo
Page 867 and 868:
Byte A.rray HandlingLDB 190STB 191L
Page 869 and 870:
LPA 208LDP 186STP 187UB,Load a pack
Page 871 and 872:
Noninteger ComparisonsThe next six
Page 873 and 874:
LNOT 147 Logical NOT. Push the one'
Page 875 and 876:
XJPI72WI,W2, ,W3Case jump. WI is w
Page 877 and 878:
EXIT 158 4 Exit from procedure. tos
Page 879 and 880:
DecimalOpcode Mnemonic Full Name Lo
Page 881:
DecimalOpcode Mnemonic Full Name Lo
Page 884 and 885:
64K System MemorylExternal Language
Page 886 and 887:
128K System Auxiliary MemoryAuxilia
Page 888 and 889:
Blocks in a Code Segmenthigh disk a
Page 890 and 891:
Segment Dictionarylow disk addresse
Page 892 and 893:
Code Part of a Code Segment~.r--'-"
Page 894 and 895:
6502 Procedure Attribute Tablebaser
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Program Stackhigh memory addressesS
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Activation Recordhigh memory addres
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ContentsBibliographyReference Books
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General Pascal TextbooksClancy, Mic
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Glossaryactivation: The execution o
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cold start: A startup procedurethat
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file: See disk file, external file,
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length attribute: The part of along
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POINTERLIST: A list of pointersin L
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segment table: A section of thehigh
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USES declaration: The part of aPasc
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o 48K Runtime System (Version 1.2 o
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IndexCast of Characters*(asterisk)
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ooleansassignment statements and II
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DDATA III-215data directives II-187
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Execute command, from Commandlevel
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GPWROFTEN III-83RANDOM III-85ROUND
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Link command, from Command levelII-
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0ODD function III-90OF III-117-118o
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parameters for III-130PENCOLOR III-
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Replace command ll-113-117delimiter
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storageof arrays III-328of booleans
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UNLINKED-INTRINS IV-26unsignedconst
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Apple Computer, Inc.20525 Mariani A
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