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61previous evidence that chimpanzees do not increase aggression during space restriction.Furthermore, they seem to inhibit aggression by not joining ongoing conflicts and by selectivelydecreasing the targeting of common ‘victims’."Dazey J, Kuyk K, Oswald M, Marenson J, Erwin J 1977. Effects of group composition onagonistic behavior of captive pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). American Journal ofPhysical Anthropology 46, 73-76Females showed significantly less aggression in the presence of adult males [one male pergroup] than they did in female-only groups.Elton RH 1979. Baboon behavior under crowded conditions. In Captivity and Behavior Erwin J,Maple T, Mitchell G (ed), 125-139. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NYCrowding produced sharp increases in aggression, noticeable increase in tension and generalactivity. ”Social disintegration [e.g., vicious aggression, social withdrawal accompanied by selfdirectedbehaviors], as well as individual pathology [e.g., "pulling of hair out of other animals(by the handful) and eating it"; chewing fingers], was the end result of the crowding in thisgroup of baboons.“Erwin J 1977. Factors influencing aggressive behavior and risk of trauma in the pigtail macaque(Macaca nemestrina). Laboratory Animal Science 27, 541-547"Provision of cover reduced aggression among members of stable groups.”Erwin J 1979. Aggression in captive macaques: Interaction of social and spacial factors. InCaptivity and Behavior Erwin J, Maple T, Mitchell G (eds), 139-171. Van Nostrand, New York,NYProviding a male-dominated group access to two rooms rather than one allowed some animalsto be out of the dominant male's sight. Loss of the male's control over his group resulted in adramatic increase in aggression among the females.Ha JC, Robinette RL, Sackett GP 1999. Social housing and pregnancy outcome in captivepigtailed macaques. American Journal of Primatology 47, 153-163"A greater number of moves decreased the probability of a viable birth and increased gestationlength and the need for clinical treatment of the dam, while increased group size decreasedgestation length. Increased moves and group size may increase stress by continuously shufflingsocial relationships, keeping females from establishing social hierarchies, and reducing groupstability. Low group stability may increase aggression by making females more likely to attackother females without knowing the opponent's social position or physical abilities."Hartner MK, Hall J, Penderhest J, Clark LP 2001. Group-housing subadult male cynomolgusmacaques in a pharmaceutical environment. Lab Animal 30(8), 53-57A carefully designed, successful group-formation and group-housing protocol of five 3.5+ yearsold previously single-caged cynos is described in detail. "Not only can the social complexity ofthe animals' interactions be increased, but also routine tasks can be accomplished with ease. Theanimals are easy to handle, restrain, and chair train, and they readily accept biomedicalresearch project requirements. ... Through the maintenance of touch gates and constant visualcontact during the study [requiring single-housing for over a month], we were able to regroupthe animals [without accidents] within 24 hours. .. Since we began the program, the animalshave transitioned through puberty and subadult stages .. and are now cohabitating as adults."