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The immortal virgins appear again in regard to Alp, who is contrasted with hisTurkish men in that he is apparently not attracted by the promise of them:Not his the loud fanatic boastTo plant the crescent o’er the cross,Or risk a life with little loss,Secure in paradise to beBy Houris loved immortally[.] (SC 12.252-6).Once more, the religion is being used to inspire warfare. This time, the word ‘raisingmankind to kill’ is ‘love’. This is a shrewd comment on the functioning of such offersof paradise; like the Norse idea of Valhalla, or the blessings given to the ChristianCrusaders, they make death in battle a positive idea instead of a negative one, and thusencourage fearlessness. However, neither of these, nor any other culture’s version, ispresented, leaving Islam alone in this respect.Much of this representation of Islam may have been influenced by Byron’s encounterswith Bektashi believers. 301 Yaşar Nuri Öztürk, writing about the founder of the“heterodox Bektāshī dervish order” which Yapp identifies as predominant in theOttoman Empire and particularly amongst the Janissaries, 302 notes of the founder ofthe school thatIn the Maqalat [Sayings], Haji Bektash has this to say about ghaza (holy war):If you kill the unbeliever you are a ghazi [one engaged in holy war], and if hekills you, you will be a shahid [martyr for Islam]…and the rank of martyr issuperior in five respects to that of the prophets. 303301 Q.v. Beatty, ‘Byron and Islam: the Triple Eros’, Journal of European Studies, 4 (1974), 325-63.302 See also J L Lee, Bektashiyya Sufism of Turkey and the Balkans (Birmingham: Centre for the Studyof Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 1994), p.26, especially on the rejection of the world as anillusion, an idea quite compatible with Idealism.303 Öztürk, p.63. Thornton mentions Haji Bektash’s “high repute” in contemporary Ottoman Turkey,particularly amongst the Janissaries (2.7.124-5).199
As noted previously, Bektashism is not strictly orthodox, and this last commentcontradicts the accepted ranking of martyrs and prophets:It is, however, the constant doctrine of the Korân, that the felicity of eachperson will be proportioned to his deserts, and that there will be abodes ofdifferent degrees of happiness; the most eminent degree being reserved for theprophets, the second for the doctors and teachers of God’s worship, the nextfor the martyrs, and the lower for the rest of the righteous, according to theirseveral merits. 304It is questionable whether Byron would have known that this validation of martyrswas not truly representative of Muslim belief, however. The Muslims with whomByron spent the most time were the family of the warlord Ali Pasha. In a letter toLady Melbourne (BLJ 3.111, 7/9/13), Byron passes on a story in a letter from thepasha, about him recently having avenged the rape, forty-two years previous, of hismother and two sisters. Those killed were “all the persons living in the remotestdegree akin to this outrage (in Turkey these are affronts) their children grand children– cousins &c. to the amount of 600”. 305 The sheer difference between the degree ofviolence thus practised in the Ottoman Empire and that practised in Byron’s ownsociety might well have led him to judge the other more brutal. However, as Franklinpoints out, “Byron’s stress on [the Ottoman Empire’s] brutality” was also part of hisphilhellenic campaign, the justification for the liberation of Greece, and featured inhis speech to the House of Lords on the 27 th of February in 1812 in regard to “themost despotic of infidel governments”. 306In these Tales, Islam is a faith connected with weapons, warfare, and brutality. Itshell is presented as a place of violence, and its paradise as an incitement to violence.This association of violence with Islam was a common idea in Byron’s time, and his304 Sale, p.105; see also Koran sura 4.69, p.82.305 Marandi claims that Ali Pasha was not “a practicing Muslim” (in ‘The Bride of the East’, his revisedversion of ‘The Concubine of Abydos’, in Byron and Orientalism, 215-31 (p.221)). Marandi cites nobasis for this claim, which is always a difficult one to make, and is contradicted by Ali Pasha’s selfidentificationin story of Adjutant-General Rose, quoted from Ibrahim-Manzur-Effendi, Mémoires surla Grèce et l’Albanie, pendant le gouvernement d’Ali-Pacha (Paris, 1827), pp.32-3, in Byron andOrientalism, pp.42-3.306 Franklin, p.34; Coleridge 9.429.200
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AbstractAlthough Lord Byron’s poe
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NotesThe referencing of this thesis
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Introduction ......................
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IntroductionThe poetry of George Go
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nineteenth century, 6 and the power
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of Lord Byron (1978), and also the
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The Giaour as “a separate, disemb
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generations since, have been inclin
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The purpose of this study is to rec
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Although moral censure is consisten
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House of Lords on April 21, 1812, f
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For the British Review, William Rob
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[Harold], and the moral to be deduc
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not merely a difference of opinion,
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noting that it would have been “m
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Part of the meaning of the poem’s
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The TextOne of the initial question
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deliberate movement away from a foc
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The most recurrent proximate source
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understanding, nor yet favour to me
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Nature: “Age shakes Athena’s to
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Religion is further questioned as t
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Our life is a false nature - ’tis
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the fallen world, and separation fr
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epeatedly throughout the poem, a si
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idolatrous course: “Three hosts c
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Earth paved like Heaven (3.50.444-9
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egarding “Wahab’s rebel brood w
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The Greeks also - a kind of Eastern
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Idol, saint, virgin, prophet, cresc
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Is’t not enough, unhappy thing! t
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Christ! it is a goodly sight to see
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“thunder, and flame” of the thu
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As haunts the unquench’d soul - p
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e called reflective; for dogmatic f
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Of mortal bondage, by these spirits
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Thou glorious mirror, where the Alm
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of the world, it is the home of fai
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Religion itself does not play a maj
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Its poetical merits have been extol
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The Poet’s DefenceMuch of the sca
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what the Writer says of D[on] J[uan
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Our hearts first in the depths of L
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Since Kinnaird was not Murray, the
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His reference to their Christianity
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Juan lays claim. The claim of the s
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factor in all of them is the unlimi
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Further, in reasserting the role of
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common view of the proper role of a
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But though I am a temperate theolog
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I don’t pretend that I quite unde
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It is such incongruities between th
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(1.194.1546-7) for his interests, m
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You have freed the blacks - now pra
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as a moral warning to guard against
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Perpetual Virginity. At this point,
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this I heard her say, and can’t b
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could refer to Jesus’ own bloody
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classes. The exhortation, while fac
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it does not support Christian exclu
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As Hell - mere mortals who their po
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particular, and so “Turk” is in
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Consistently, war is damned by a co
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ead your Bible, sir, and mind your
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the steward reduces someone’s deb
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Don Juan includes a questioning of
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This is one of the passages which t
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accept more readily the inconclusiv
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You bind yourself, and call some mo
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By those who sow them in a land tha
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The agnosticism of Don Juan is unsy
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Notably, the poet does not repeat t
Page 150 and 151: So Cuvier says; - and then shall co
Page 152 and 153: This view of Creation as diminution
Page 154 and 155: Universe universal Egotism!That all
Page 156 and 157: Notably, it is the ‘ideal’ whic
Page 158 and 159: might occur here below. Much the sa
Page 160 and 161: nor wholly mortal, and the Virgin M
Page 162 and 163: championed in the House of Lords. A
Page 164 and 165: so that even when he pray’dHe tur
Page 166 and 167: To claim that it is wit based on de
Page 168 and 169: If we were told suddenly that Canto
Page 170 and 171: The Eastern Tales: Islam versus Chr
Page 172 and 173: Byron’s use of Turkish and Arabic
Page 174 and 175: Religious and Ethnic TensionEurocen
Page 176 and 177: [….]Gloom is gathered o’er the
Page 178 and 179: discrimination absent from his sour
Page 180 and 181: Muslims may be included amongst the
Page 185: culture.” 283 It is worth noting,
Page 188 and 189: It is to be observed, that every al
Page 190 and 191: Christian apologists nearly every t
Page 192 and 193: the description of the scene surrou
Page 194 and 195: On its table still beholdThe cup of
Page 196 and 197: Whereas the Turkish troops are bloo
Page 198 and 199: “conditional immortality”, in w
Page 202 and 203: expression of it is, in part, merel
Page 204 and 205: This is a far more politic represen
Page 206 and 207: their much more limited value: toys
Page 208 and 209: unusual, or at all specific to his
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Page 212 and 213: eating the fruit. Genesis describes
Page 214 and 215: fails to fit in with his ideals, an
Page 216 and 217: (C 3.8.301), but this, too, is miti
Page 218 and 219: and them as devils. Nonetheless, th
Page 220 and 221: factor. The struggle between determ
Page 222 and 223: Notably, for his despair to be stro
Page 224 and 225: In pain, my faltering tongue had tr
Page 226 and 227: Ere his very thought could pray,Una
Page 228 and 229: Satan, appears in the work of a few
Page 230 and 231: It is worth noticing, too, that alt
Page 232 and 233: Conrad is about to attack Seyd, and
Page 234 and 235: ut the Christian narrator is in no
Page 236 and 237: another spice of wickedness. Furthe
Page 238 and 239: despite the many pages which Sale d
Page 240 and 241: etween Manfred and Astarte. 378arti
Page 242 and 243: on the same level as Manfred, and s
Page 244 and 245: dropped from “a dreadful height
Page 246 and 247: May light upon your head (3.4.48-50
Page 248 and 249: out of heaven, /Where thou art not
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possibly a reference to someone lik
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genuflection. In part, this may be
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comments about the nature of this u
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the one who delivers this curse, es
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In Genesis, in the middle of the ga
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And ask them what it is we dread to
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clay again” (2.2.78-9). The Witch
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DespairOne of the contemporary obje
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need punishment, as he himself come
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Manfred refers to “the Maker” a
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dead?”, presenting support for th
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Viewing himself as the cause of her
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Every reader will be struck with th
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Which makes you tremble - by the cl
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he is no Prometheus but a Prometheu
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Devil to resist. This displaces the
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describes it as “Byron’s comple
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a few feeble declarations of the wo
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to one another. 455 Contemporary cr
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nothing to do” (McGann 5.297:72-3
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much about one or the other? They c
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While the reversal (peripeteia) and
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lasphemy, all must fall prostrate b
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It is useful to consider that Lucif
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Innumerable, more endurable,By the
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The prospect’s partner enters, an
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poet: the assumption is that the ch
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knowledge. When Cain has said that
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she says that God has told them tha
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These exchanges, along with the ref
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topic in which he is only losing gr
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Him makes thee mine the same. (1.1.
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following him will prevent Adah’s
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Cain’s primary interest is the sa
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The immediately evident difference
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Cain’s eventual realization by 2.
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wife in cursing his son (3.1.448).
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Thy guide hath done thee evil (3.1.
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GodWith the contemporary responses
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Cain, “thou art evil” (2.2.220)
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Lucifer attempts to answer it by an
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answer to the question: 525 in gene
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ADAH:thy God is alone; and is he ha
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The reception of the two dramas has
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orthodox viewpoints. Raphael is con
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The versions in Heaven and Earth co
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No, not to save all earth, were ear
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It is also reminiscent of the Genes
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of Calvinism: as Ray Stevens notes,
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degree than their actions thus far.
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DogmatismThe dogmatism of the chara
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while Noah claims to not be judgeme
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Then dieWith them!How dar’st thou
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He appears, at first, to have been
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[…]blessed be the Lord (1.3.883-4
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cataclysm in which everyone else wi
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the criticism of the unorthodoxy of
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ConclusionThere is a reverent impat
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are vicious bigots, and its God is
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This radical reinvention of religio
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not the triumphantly outreaching se
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