ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Espionage, Intelligence, and Security Volume ...

Baton Roundsper surface area unit is relatively big, and the measurementpoints themselves are located uniformly on thesurface investigated), then computer methods of isobathconstruction are used. In this case, two stages of the workare executed: first using the measurement data obtainedin arbitrary points of the surface, the values of the depth inknots of a regular grid are calculated (sometimes thisstage is known as digital surface model construction), andthen using these grid values, coordinates of differentisobaths are determined (grid values are used also forother forms of bathometric mapping representations, 3-Dviews, for example). There are many algorithms of digitalmodel creation, such as the least mean square method,and the so-called Kriging method, as well as algorithms ofconstructing an isobath of its own using depth grid values.To construct a precise map of the region it is necessary toperform echosounding surveying on it in such a mannerthat map stripes, obtained in different vessel tracks, wouldbe as close to each other as possible, or even overlap.After performing such surveying, all data are joined together,and the map of the entire region is constructed.It should be noted that currently, only small part ofEarth’s ocean bottom (several percent) is covered by suchprecise measurements. In some places, little data is availablein a study area, obtained by one beam echosounder,or there is no data at all. In these cases, scientists try to useresults of other geophysical measurements, first of allgravimetric measurements, to determine ocean depth.For example, methods of determination of ocean bottomtopography using satellite altimetry or marine gravimetrydata are useful. Even with using otherwise accurate satellitetechnology, indirect geophysical methods for determiningthe ocean bottom depth can always contain amistake. The Earth’s surface is a very complex formation,so the precise value of the ocean depth at a givenpoint should be determined if necessary only by directmeasurement.In the case where depth measurement data are smallin numbers for a given region, indirect methods are usedin constructing bathymetric mapping, such as geomorphologyanalysis, for example. Scientists also take intoaccount geological considerations and even human intuition,which can at times be useful.Several international organizations are currently workingon bathymetric mapping. The unclassified GeneralBathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO, in the scale1:5000000), which may be considered a reference map,is one example. In this map, data of many regionalbathymetric maps are collected, taking into account thedifferent methods of their construction. There is also adigital version of this map (on CD), where files are representedin different formats, and in ASCII codes in particular,and where isobaths are represented in the so-calledvector format.Bathymetric mapping is finding increasing scientificand commercial use. For example, bathymetric maps areimportant in forging different underwater communications.❚ FURTHER READING:BOOKS:Barnes, J. Basic Geological Mapping, 3rd ed. New York:John Wiley and Sons, 1995.PERIODICALS:Perez, P. “SPOT Satellite Data Analysis for BathymetricMapping.” Image Processing, vol. 3 (2000):464–467.Opderbecke, J. “Depth Image Matching for UnderwaterVehicle Navigation.” Image Processing, vol. 2(1999):624–629.SEE ALSOMapping TechnologyBaton Rounds.SEE Less Lethal Weapons Technology.❚ LARRY GILMANBay of PigsThe Bay of Pigs (Bahía de Cochinos) is a small bay on thesouthern coast of Cuba that was invaded on April 17, 1961by approximately 1,400 Cuban exiles organized and armedby the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).The invasion was meant to appear to be an attempt byindependent Cuban rebels to overthrow leftist Cuban leaderFidel Castro, but became obviously known as an Americanproject, and confirmed when President John F. Kennedyimmediately admitted responsibility when the invasionfailed. The Bay of Pigs, as the whole episode came to beknown, was a major embarrassment for the United States,which was caught deceiving the United Nations and tryingto overthrow by force a government which the U.S. itselfhad officially recognized and which was not attacking theU.S. One hundred and fourteen invaders and 157 Cubansoldiers were killed and 1,189 invaders were taken prisoner.Fidel Castro became the leader of Cuba’s governmentwhen his revolutionary forces overthrew the Batista regimein January, 1959. At first, Washington was not hostileto Castro. President Dwight D. Eisenhower recognizedhis government a few days after Batista’s downfall, andCastro even traveled to Washington to meet with VicePresident Richard Nixon (later President Nixon). Nixondecided that Castro could not be relied upon to pursueU.S. interests and began to agitate privately for his removal.In October, 1959, Eisenhower approved a secret programto depose Castro proposed by the CIA and the StateDepartment. Eisenhower told his advisors that “our handshould not show in anything that is done”—in other words,that the operation should be carried out in such a way that96 Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security