ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Espionage, Intelligence, and Security Volume ...

Botulinum ToxinInternational intervention helped end genocide andwarfare in the region, but civil war left the nationalinfrastructure of Bosnia and Herzegovina devastated. In1998, the Bosnian government began an ambitious programto rebuild the nation’s intelligence and securityforces. As of 2003, NATO-led Stabilization Forces (SFOR)continue to operate in Bosnia and Herzegovina, preservingpeace in the region and aiding in the formation of newnational security forces.Bosnia and Herzegovina’s main civilian intelligenceservice is the Agency for Investigation and Documentation(AID). The AID investigates current and past criminal activities,with a focus on ferreting out perpetrators of genocideand other war crimes. The investigative force alsoconducts domestic intelligence operations, including politicaland communications surveillance of military forces.The State Security Agency and the Civil Police work closelywith the AID to assess and neutralize threats to nationalsecurity, and protect the nation’s citizens.Although Bosnia and Herzegovina’s military is greatlylimited in their actions under the terms of current, regionalcease-fire agreement, some military-based intelligenceservices continue to operate. The main objective ofmilitary intelligence services is to obtain foreign intelligenceinformation, especially that which relates to themilitary strength of its neighboring states, Croatia andSerbia. Government-backed espionage against dissidentand rival ethnic groups was circumscribed by internationalpeacekeeping forces to deter renewed hostilities inthe region.The government also maintains a mixed civilianmilitaryAnti-terrorist Brigade. Little is known about thedaily operations of this secret police force.❚ FURTHER READING:ELECTRONIC:Central Intelligence Agency. “Bosnia and Herzegovina”CIA World Factbook (April 8, 2003).SEE ALSOCroatia, Intelligence and SecuritySerbia, Intelligence and SecurityUnited Nations Security Council❚ BRIAN HOYLEBotulinum ToxinBotulinum toxin is among the most poisonous substancesknown. The toxin, which can be ingested or inhaled, andwhich disrupts transmission of nerve impulses to muscles,is naturally produced by the bacterium ClostridiumEncyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Securitybotulinum. Certain strains of C. baratii and C. butyricumcan also be capable of producing the toxin.Botulinum toxin has become well known in recentyears for two reasons. First, the toxin has become aweapon in the arsenal of terrorists. Contamination of foodis one route for infection with the toxin. The toxin can alsobe released into the air, which was attempted on at leastthree occasions between 1990 and 1995 by the Japanesecult Aum Shinrikyo. The government of Iraq admitted toUnited Nations inspectors following the 1991 Persian GulfWar that tens of thousands of liters of botulism toxin hadbeen produced and loaded into weapons. The toxin wasthe most numerous of all the biological weapons thendeveloped by Iraq.Paradoxically, the other reason for the toxin’s fame isthe use of the toxin as a cosmetic enhancement (i.e.,“botox”).There are at least seven structurally different versionsof botulinum toxin. The type designated as type A isresponsible for some food-borne outbreaks in the UnitedStates and elsewhere. Improperly canned foods are aparticular threat.Clostridium botulinum is a spore-forming bacterium.Like the well-known anthrax bacillus, the spores of Clostridiumbotulinum can persist in the environment formany years and, when conditions become more favorable(i.e., in a wound, food, and the lungs) the spore cangerminate and free the toxin. Dried preparations of thespores can thus represent a terrorist weapon.The use of botulinum toxin as a weapon began in the1930s, with experiments conducted by the Japanese onprisoners during the occupation of Manchuria. In WorldWar II, plans were made to vaccinate Allied troops participatingin the D-day invasion of Normandy, because ofconcerns that Germany had weaponized the toxin. Eventhe United States maintained an active biological weaponsprogram, including the use of botulism toxin, into thelate 1960s.Botulism toxin acts by preventing the transmission ofnerve signals between the nerves that connect with musclecells. Progressive functional deterioration of the affectedmuscles occurs. Symptoms of botulism intoxicationinclude dizziness, blurred or double vision, nausea,vomiting, diarrhea, and weakness of muscles in variousareas of the body. The muscle failure can be so severe asto lead to coma and respiratory arrest. Even in those whosurvive exposure to the toxin, complete recovery cantake months.❚ FURTHER READING:BOOKS:Tucker, J.B., (ed.). Toxic Terror: Assessing the TerroristUse of Chemical and Biological Weapons. Cambridge:MIT Press, 2000.139