ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Espionage, Intelligence, and Security Volume ...

BotulismPERIODICALS:Byrne, M.P., and L.A. Smith. “Development of Vaccinesfor Prevention of Botulism.” Biochimie no. 82 (2000):955–966.Kahn, A.S., S. Morse, and S. Lillibridge. “Public-healthPrepardness for Biological Terrorism in the USA.” Lancetno. 356 (2000): 1179–1182.Montecucco, C. (ed.). “Clostridial Neurotoxins: The MolecularPathogenesis of Tetanus and Botulism.” CurrentTopics in Microbiology and Immunology no. 195 (1995):1–278.Lacy, D.B., W. Tepp, A.C. Cohen, et al. “Crystal Structure ofBotulinum Neurotoxin Type A and Implications forToxicity.” Nature Structural Biology no. 5 (1998): 898–902.ELECTRONIC:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Botulism.”Public Health Emergency Preparedness and Response.February 7, 2003. (April15, 2003).Johns Hopkins University. “Botulinum Toxin.” Center forCivilian Biodefense Strategies. 2002. (April 15, 2003).SEE ALSOBiological WarfareMicrobiology: Applications to Espionage, Intelligence andSecurityUSAMRIID (United States Army Medical Research Instituteof Infectious Diseases)Botulism.SEE Bioterrorism.❚ JULI BERWALDBrain-Machine InterfacesA brain-machine interface is the linkage of the brain to amechanical device exterior to the body in such a mannerthat the device is controlled by natural signals from thebrain. An important goal for developing such technologyis to aid people who are paralyzed or otherwise physicallyimpared. The military has interest in brain-machine interfacesas a means of controlling robotics from a distancewith extreme accuracy and precision.One of the major technological hurdles in the developmentof brain-machine interfaces is the understandingof neural patterns required to accomplish tasks. One companyheaded by American scientist Phillip Kennedy hasmade great advances in this area. Kennedy has developeda very small neurotropic device that is implanted into themotor cortex of the brain of severely paralyzed people.This device transmits electronic signals from the person’sbrain to electronic equipment that then translates thesignals to a computer. People with the implant learn tocontrol a mouse on the computer and to type text usingelectronic signals in their brain.The extension of this technology is the understandingof the neural patterns required to control complex motortasks. In 2000, scientists at Duke University implanted anarray of 96 electrodes into the brain of an owl monkey. Theelectrical signals measured on each of the electrodes werecollected when the monkey performed certain tasks, includingreaching for food. These signals were then analyzedand mathematical algorithms were developed thatallowed scientists to predict the trajectory of the monkey’shand from the neural signals. The scientists then programmeda robotic arm to move in three dimensionsaccording to the monkey’s brain signals. They eventuallytransmitted these signals over the Internet to a laboratoryat MIT, where another robotic arm 600 miles away wascontrolled by the monkey’s neural signals.The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) is extremely interested in brain-machine interfacesfor controlling robotics and interpreting sensoryinformation. In 2001, they authorized funding for the Brain-Machine Interfaces program. The goals of this programare to create new technologies that enhance human performancethrough non-invasive integration of neural signalsinto external devices. This includes understandingthe neural codes required to complete complex motortasks, building a feedback loop from an external deviceback to the brain, and fabricating new materials requiredto capture neural commands. In addition, biomimetic systemsthat integrate nueral signals are of interest.Other defense related projects investigate neural networksand optics. Scientists at the U.S. Army Aviation andMissile Command (Weapons Sciences Directorate) headquarteredat the Redstone Arsenal, Alabama are workingintently on projects designed to integrate optic “flow” andautomatic target recognition systems. These projects utilizemathematical techniques improving image factorization(e.g., image decomposition). For example, neural networkbased optics using specific algorithms can translate opticflow into four separate image planes that represent variousmotion parameters. In addition to targeting, neuralnetwork based optics may be used to navigate autonomousvehicles and other robotics.❚ FURTHER READING:ELECTRONIC:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency: DefenseSciences Office, “Brain Machine Interfaces” (March 26,2003).Neural Signals (March26, 2003).140 Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security