ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Espionage, Intelligence, and Security Volume ...

Cold War, The Start of the Atomic Agemembers of antiwar groups in order to discredit thosegroups; and others.❚ FURTHER READING:ELECTRONIC:”Final Report of the Select Committee to Study GovernmentalOperations with Respect to Intelligence Activities.“United States Senate. April 26, 1976. (March 18, 2003).❚ SIMON WENDTCold War (1945–1950), TheStart of the Atomic AgeThe Cold War was an ideological, political, economic, andmilitary conflict between the United States and the Unionof Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), which began inthe aftermath of World War II and ended in 1989. From theoutset, the Cold War was inextricably linked with thedevelopment of the atomic bomb and its use as a militarydeterrent.Melita Norwood, an 87-year-old great-grandmother, reads a statementoutside her London home after being unmasked as one of the SovietUnion’s top Cold War spies who passed atomic secrets to Moscow,giving the Soviet Union a vital edge in the arms race. ©REUTERS NEWMEDIAINC./CORBIS.Roots of the Cold War. The enmity between the UnitedStates and Russia, the largest of the fifteen republics thatultimately constituted the U.S.S.R., stemmed from a longhistory of mutual distrust. Opposing plans concerning thepolitical and economic future of post-World War II Europeand disputes concerning the development and control ofatomic weapons intensified the conflict. The seeds ofantagonism date back to 1917. That year, the United Statesdispatched a contingent of soldiers to assist Europeanallies in overthrowing Russia’s new communist regime,which had come to power during the Russian Revolution.Despite the operation’s failure, the U.S. government continuedto deny the new Soviet Union diplomatic recognitionuntil 1933. After a brief period of cooperation, Russianleaders’ suspicions toward America began anew at thedawn of World War II. They considered Western nations’initial refusal to oppose Nazi Germany and Japan witharms part of a capitalist scheme to destroy the U.S.S.R.Americans, on the other hand, assumed that the brutalregime of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin (1879–1953) wasonly slightly better than that of Germany’s leader AdolphHitler (1889–1945).During World War II, Stalin’s doubts about the sincerityof American vows to support the Soviet war effortintensified. Soon after the beginning of the war in 1939,the Soviet Union bore the brunt of military action, attemptingto fend off a massive German invasion. AlthoughAmerican President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945)promised the Soviet leader substantial economic aid, theUnited States managed to provide relatively few supplies.More important, Roosevelt assured Stalin in 1942 thatAmerican troops would relieve some of the military pressureon Russia by establishing a second front in WesternEurope. However, logistical and production problems postponedan allied invasion for several years. When alliedforces finally landed on Europe’s shores on June 6, 1944,Roosevelt had reneged on his promise three times. Thisdelay burdened post-World War II U.S.-Soviet relationsconsiderably.Even before Germany’s surrender on May 9, 1945,additional disputes arose over the future of liberated Europe.The United States envisioned democratic and freelyelected societies based on the right of self-determinationand free trade. By contrast, the Soviet Union sought territorialexpansion and spheres of influence that would guaranteethe country’s national security. Accordingly, duringand after the war, Stalin insisted on establishing EasternEuropean governments supportive of the Soviet Union.He considered countries such as Poland, Bulgaria, andRomania part of an essential buffer zone to prevent future230 Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security