ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Espionage, Intelligence, and Security Volume ...

DODSoviet Active Measures, United States Information Agency,for his assistance in compiling this essay, especially inclarifying the different Soviet forgeries. Mr. Romerstein’spaper, ”Forgeries: A Weapon of Soviet Active Measures,“prepared for the 1987 Conference on Soviet Active Measuresand Propaganda in the Gorbachev Era: Analysis andResponse” should be considered a primary source on thesubject. I am grateful to Mr. Romerstein for permission touse this paper and for his helpful comments.❚ FURTHER READING:BOOKS:Baldwin, Neil. Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Productionof Hate. New York: Public Affairs, 2001.Daugherty, William E. Psychological Warfare Casebook. Incollaboration with Morris Janowitz. Baltimore, MD: Publishedfor Operations Research Office, Baltimore: JohnsHopkins University by Johns Hopkins Press, 1959.Segal, Binjamin W. A Lie and a Libel: A History of theProtocols of the Elders of Zion. [Translation by RichardS. Levy of 1926 edition] Lincoln, NE: University ofNebraska, 1995.U.S. Department of State. Active Measures: A Report onthe Substance and Process of Anti-U.S. Disinformationand Propaganda Campaigns. Washington: The Department,1896.———. Soviet Influence Activities: A Report on ActiveMeasures and Propaganda, 1987–1988. Washington:The Department, 1989.U.S. International Communication Agency. Forgeries ofU.S. Documents. Prepared by the European Branch,Office of Research. Washington: The Agency, 1982.SEE ALSODisinformationPropaganda, Uses and Psychology❚ JUDSON KNIGHTDOD (United StatesDepartment of Defense)Although it originated only in 1947, the United StatesDepartment of Defense (DOD) comprises elements thatdate back to the Revolutionary War. Some 3.2 millionpeople, including active military, reservists, National Guard,and civilian personnel, work for DOD, making it one of thenation’s largest employers. DOD manages some 600,000individual buildings or structures worldwide, the mostnotable of which is the vast five-sided structure in Washington,D.C., whose name is sometimes used to designatethe Department as a whole: the Pentagon. Led by thepresident, as commander-in-chief of the armed forces,with the advice of the secretary of defense and the NationalSecurity Council (NSC), DOD is made up of the militaryservices and the unified commands, whose deployment iscoordinated by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS).Historical BackgroundThe roots of DOD lie in the establishment of the Army,Navy, and Marine Corps in 1775, at the outset of theAmerican Revolution. In 1789, the new federal governmentcreated the War Department, and in 1798 the Departmentof the Navy, which also includes the Marine Corps.Both the War Department, today known as the Departmentof the Army, and the Department of the Navy remainedCabinet-level executive departments until 1947.Another military service, and the only one under DODcontrol during peacetime, had it roots in the formation ofthe Revenue Cutter Service in 1790. By 1915, this wouldbecome the U.S. Coast Guard, which is today part of theDepartment of Homeland Security, except in wartime,when it is assigned to DOD. Finally, the U.S. Air Force—which is centered on technology of which the nation’sfounders could not have conceived—began life as anelement of the Army. In 1947, it became a service in itsown right.The statutory foundation of the modern DOD, alongwith much of the national security apparatus, is the NationalSecurity Act of 1947. It created a civilian secretary ofdefense position, along with a Department of the AirForce. The act transformed the War Department into theDepartment of the Army, and placed the three majorservices—Army, Navy, and Air Force—under the secretaryof defense. An amendment to the act in 1949 officiallycreated the Department of Defense itself.The Pentagon. Six years before the National Security Act,just prior to U.S. entry into World War II, the War Departmentbuilt the structure that today symbolizes DOD: thePentagon. Prior to its construction, War and Navy departmentoperations were housed in some 17 buildings. Thesite chosen for the new military headquarters was an areaof swamps and garbage dumps at the edge of Washington,D.C., where construction began on September 11,1941. Just 16 months after the groundbreaking, on January15, 1943, the building was dedicated. The entire cost ofthe project, including outside facilities, was $83 million.A vast structure, the Pentagon covers 29 acres (11.74hectares) and comprises three times as much floor spaceas the Empire State Building in New York City. Any one ofits five wedge-shaped sections would hold the entire U.S.Capitol Building. Workplace for some 23,000 civilian andmilitary employees, it has 17.5 miles of corridors, yet ittakes only seven minutes to walk between any two pointsin the building. On September 11, 2001—exactly 60 yearsto the day after construction began on the building—terrorists flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the side of350 Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security