CONFLICT ISSUES violent autonomy conflicts could be observed. The conflict between the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and the government of Turkey escalated to war level after both parties had ended the 2013 ceasefire [→ Turkey (PKK)]. In Iran, the conflict between the Party of Free Life of Kurdistan and the government escalated to a violent level, while Sunni armed groups continued to engage in violent attacks on government forces, with some them allegedly attempting to join the so-called Islamic State [→ Iran (PJAK / Kurdish Areas); Iran (Jundallah et al. / Sistan Baluchistan); Syria, Iraq et al. (IS)]. Conflicts over autonomy of Kurds in Syria and Yemeni tribes in the Ma'rib region continued to be fought on a violent level [→ Syria (Kurdish groups); Yemen (tribes / Ma'rib)]. The autonomy conflict between Kabylia Berbers and the Algerian government turned non-violent [→ Algeria (Berbers / Kabylia)]. Furthermore, the formerly non-violent crisis between Cyrenaica federalists and the Libyan government de-escalated to a dispute [→ Libya (Federalists / Cyrenaica)]. The dispute between the Kurdistan Regional Government and the central government of Iraq continued due to tensions over the control of the oil trade with Turkey and the status of Kirkuk [→ Iraq (Kurdistan Regional Government)]. (jli, lxl, cwl, emh) SUBNATIONAL PREDOMINANCE In <strong>2015</strong>, there were 87 conflicts attributed to the item subnational predominance, defined as the attainment of the de facto control of a territory or population. Of those, 34 conflicts also involved claims for natural resources, making subnational predominance and resources the most common item combination (34/87). In 37 cases, actors fought solely over the de facto control of a territory or population. Conflicts over subnational predominance tended to be comparatively more violent than conflicts that revolved around other conflict issues. In total, 24 conflicts were conducted on a highly violent level, including six wars. With 13 conflicts, the region of Sub-Saharan Africa saw the highest number of wars and limited wars over subnational predominance in <strong>2015</strong>, followed by the Americas with six highly violent conflicts. In Asia and Oceania, approx. a quarter of all conflicts revolved around subnational predominance (31/126), of which 23 were conducted violently. The Philippines saw the only war over subnational predominance in the region [→ Philippines (BIFM, BIFF MILF, government)]. The Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF) and government forces frequently clashed throughout the year, resulting in at least 250 deaths. Of the 23 violent conflicts over subnational predominance, six also included the claim for natural resources. In these cases, the importance of each item varied from predominantly resource-related conflicts to those with actors predominantly aiming at subnational predominance. Out of the 97 conflicts observed in Sub-Saharan Africa in <strong>2015</strong>, almost a third were related to subnational predominance (30/97). In total, 25 of these were fought violently, among them ten limited and three full-scale wars. In Nigeria, farmers appealed to their right to use their ancestor's farmland in the context of increasing desertification, while Fulani nomads claimed the areas as grazing areas for their cattle [→ Nigeria (farmers pastoralists)]. Two wars between militias attached to local communities continued in Sudan and South Sudan [→ Sudan (inter-communual violence); South Sudan (inter-communal violence)]. Ten highly violent conflicts over local de facto control also included the claim for natural resources (10/13). In the Americas, twelve out of 53 conflicts revolved around subnational predominance. All conflicts were violent, with six being highly violent, including one war between drug cartels and the Mexican government [→ Mexico (drug cartels)]. Furthermore, in nine cases, non-state actors sought control of natural resources. The only three conflicts also involving the item system/ideology were observed in Colombia and Peru [→ Colombia (FARC); Colombia (ELN); Peru (Shining Path)]. A total of twelve out of 71 conflicts in the Middle East and Maghreb region comprised the item subnational predominance, of which only the conflict between al-Fatah and Hamas was carried out non-violently [→ Israel (al-Fatah Hamas)]. The only war over subnational predominance in the region was observed in the Yemen [→ Yemen, Saudi Arabia (al-Houthi)]. Al-Houthi militants expelled the government of President Abed Rabbo Mansur Hadi from the country, engaging in heavy fighting with pro-government troops, local militias, and a Saudi-led military coalition in the Yemen and at the border to Saudi Arabia. In Europe, only two out of 62 conflicts revolved around subnational predominance [→ Bosnia and Herzegovina (Islamist militant groups); Serbia (Kosovo opposition)]. In both cases, actors sought local de facto control non-violently, also contesting the orientation of the respective political system. (iro, jkr) NATURAL RESOURCES In <strong>2015</strong>, a total of 98 conflicts revolved around the ownership of natural resources and raw materials for actual usage or trade therewith. The most resource-related conflicts took place in the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia and Oceania, with the number of cases ranging from 26 to 28. In Europe (8) and the Middle East and Maghreb (9), the overall number was significantly lower. In relation to the total number of conflicts by regions, actors contested resources in about half of the conflicts in the Americas and in nearly one third of the conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa, while natural resources were a conflict issue in less than a fifth of all conflicts in the other three regions. The majority of conflicts were carried out violently with a total of 25 conflicts being highly violent, of which nine reached the level of war. The region most prone to highly violent conflicts over resources was Sub-Saharan Africa (13), followed by the Americas (5), Asia and Oceania (4), the Middle East and Maghreb (2), and lastly Europe with only one violent conflict over the Donbas-region in Ukraine. On average, the most violent conflicts were those in which actors combined their claim for resources with the de facto control of territory or population. This was followed by resource conflicts linked to the aim of changing the orientation of a political system. In total, more than one fourth of all interstate conflicts (20/74) in <strong>2015</strong> involved the claim for resources, in the majority of which actors also aimed at changing the course of an international border, thereby making resources and territory the most prevalent combination of conflict items in interstate conflicts. Only three interstate conflicts were violent, however, none of them highly violent. Pakistan and India competed over the usage of the Indus river water, similarly Syria and Israel continued to rival over the status of the Golan Heights and its water resources, and Sudan and South Sudan contended for the oil-rich border region of Abyei. In terms of specific resources, conflicts over cattle were confined to Sub-Saharan Africa only, with all of them being carried out highly violently. Similarly, around 90 percent of conflicts related to plant-based drugs were violent, with approx. half of them being highly violent. Of a total of 40 conflicts over hydrocarbons, eight were highly violent with 36
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