A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics David Crystal

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126 cyclephrase-marker (the first cycle), and then to the next highest sentence (the secondcycle), until the matrix sentence is arrived at. On each application, at a givenlevel, in this view, the rules may not take into account information higher upthe phrase-marker. This principle allows a less complicated analysis to be assignedto sentences with ‘repeated’ elements, such as The man seems to want to try asecond time.Various types of cyclic rules have been suggested, e.g. ‘last-cyclic’ rules, whichapply only to the highest level in a derivation. Cyclic transformationsreduce in number in later versions of transformational grammar – ultimatelyreducing to a single rule of (alpha) movement – and are constrained byseveral conditions on their applicability (such as the subjacency condition,the specified-subject condition and the tensed-subject condition). Postcyclicrules are also recognized in the extended standard theory, to refer toa type of transformation which applies after cyclic transformations have beencompleted, as might be suggested for handling inversion, the initial placementof question words in English (e.g. Where did John say that he was going?),or in tag formation. A successive cyclic analysis is one where superficiallyunbounded movement processes are analysed as involving a succession of boundedprocesses, e.g. in What did you say that you would do?, where WH-movementwould be applied in successive steps, crossing a single inflection phrase boundaryin each of its applications. See also phase (4).In generative phonology, the cyclic principle was established by Chomskyand Halle (see Chomskyan) to account for the variations in stress contrast inrelation to vowel quality within words and sentences. It is argued that theplace of a word’s main stress, and the remaining stresses in a polysyllabicword, are explainable by referring to the syntactic and the segmental phonologicalstructure of an utterance. The surface structure of a sentence, inthis view, is seen as a string of formatives which are bracketed together invarious ways, the brackets reflecting the grammatical structure assigned tothe sentence, such as sentence, noun phrase, verb phrase, e.g. [[the [elephant]][[kick[ed]] [the [ball]]]]. The cyclic principle makes the phonological rules applyfirst to the maximal strings that contain no brackets; once the rules areapplied, the brackets surrounding these strings are erased. The phonologicalrules then apply again to the maximal strings without brackets produced by thisfirst procedure, and again the innermost brackets are erased. The procedurecontinues until all brackets have been removed. Various types of rule have beendevised to make this cyclical procedure work, such as the Compound Rule andthe Nuclear Stress Rule, both of which are ways of assigning main degreesof stress to the various constituents of a sentence (the first in relation tocompound items, the second to sequences of items in phrases). In later phonologicaltheory, the strict cycle condition (SCC) is a constraint governing theproper application of cyclic rules: it states in essence that cyclic rules apply onlyto derived representations. See also lexical phonology.(2) In semantics, the term is sometimes used to refer to a type of senserelationship between lexical items (a subtype of incompatibility). Lexicalcycles (or cyclical sets) are sets of items organized in terms of successivity, butlacking any fixed end-points, e.g. days of the week, months of the year. ‘Serial’ordering, by contrast, displays fixed end-points, as in military ranks.
(3) A term derived from the study of the physics of sound, and used in acousticphonetics, referring to a single to-and-fro movement (oscillation) of an airparticle in a waveform around its point of rest. frequency used to be measuredin cycles per second (cps), but this unit has now been replaced by the hertz (Hz).cyclic (adj.) see cycle (1)cyclic 127
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A Dictionary of Linguistics and Pho
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A Dictionary of Linguisticsand Phon
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ContentsPreface to the Sixth Editio
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Preface to the Sixth Editionviidict
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Preface to the Sixth Editionixlangu
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AcknowledgementsFor the first editi
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List of AbbreviationsTerm Gloss Rel
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List of AbbreviationsxvDAF delayed
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List of AbbreviationsxviiIE Indo-Eu
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List of Abbreviationsxixpart, PART
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List of AbbreviationsxxiUTAH unifor
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List of Symbolsxxiii* asterisk; sta
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The InternationalPhonetic Alphabetr
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2 A-bindingabessive’) is found in
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4 accentologyof its syllables: one
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6 accessibleaccessible (adj.)see ac
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8 acquirefundamental frequency of t
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10 actualizationactualization (n.)
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12 adjoinclass in English (and simi
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14 adultocentriclinguistic area. Ad
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16 affixal morphologyare a type of
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18 AGRAGR /caìv/see agreementagram
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20 allegrowith illative, adessive a
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22 alternative setusual symbol for
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24 anacoluthongreater the intensity
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26 anchorvowels are also known as p
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28 antiformant(2) The term is also
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30 aphesisaphesis /cafvs}s/ (n.), a
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32 appropriatenessappropriateness (
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34 arityother term to the predicate
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36 articulator modelairflow through
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38 aspectaspect (n.) (asp) A catego
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40 assimilatorySeveral types of ass
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42 asymmetric rhythmic theoryman do
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44 auditory phoneticsand John MacDo
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46 auxiliarylinear arrangement of s
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Bbaby-talk (n.)see child-directed s
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50 barrierbarrier (n.) A term used
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52 benefactiveanticipate the develo
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54 binaritybinarity, binarism (n.)s
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56 bivalentphones, and vice versa -
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58 BloomfieldianismBloomfieldianism
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60 bow-wow theorybow-wow theory The
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62 branching quantifiersbranching q
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CC An abbreviation in government-bi
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66 caregiver/caretaker speechVOWELS
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68 cataphoraused with an objective
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70 causativecause and effect leadin
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72 CHAIN(2) In government-binding t
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74 checkingin a short time interval
Page 102 and 103: 76 Chomsky hierarchyand psychologis
Page 104 and 105: 78 classificationclassification (n.
Page 106 and 107: 80 cline[!] formerly [t], and later
Page 108 and 109: 82 coalescein syllables in English,
Page 110 and 111: 84 cognisea cognate subject-verb-ob
Page 112 and 113: 86 collapseelements belonging to th
Page 114 and 115: 88 commentterm ‘command’, but o
Page 116 and 117: 90 communication sciencethat langua
Page 118 and 119: 92 competencelengthened when a syll
Page 120 and 121: 94 complete assimilationcomplete as
Page 122 and 123: 96 componential analysisthe strengt
Page 124 and 125: 98 concatenatetake into account the
Page 126 and 127: 100 condition on extraction domains
Page 128 and 129: 102 connectionconnection (n.) A ter
Page 130 and 131: 104 conspireconspire (v.)see conspi
Page 132 and 133: 106 constraint demotion algorithmLa
Page 134 and 135: 108 contact assimilationrestricted
Page 136 and 137: 110 contextualizesemantics. Context
Page 138 and 139: 112 contrarythat John has not gone.
Page 140 and 141: 114 conversational turnconversation
Page 142 and 143: 116 copulacopula (n.) A term used i
Page 144 and 145: 118 corpus-internal/-external evide
Page 146 and 147: 120 counter-agentmuch information.
Page 148 and 149: 122 creativitysuch as Oh I don’t
Page 150 and 151: 124 cross-sectionalco-referential.
Page 154 and 155: Ddangling participle In traditional
Page 156 and 157: 130 deadjectivalsuch as ∃(e[hit(e
Page 158 and 159: 132 defaultdefault (n.) The applica
Page 160 and 161: 134 delayeddelayed (adj.) One of th
Page 162 and 163: 136 denotationexample, in the garde
Page 164 and 165: 138 dependentrelation holds between
Page 166 and 167: 140 descriptive adequacy/grammar/li
Page 168 and 169: 142 diachronic[ai] etc.; a diamorph
Page 170 and 171: 144 dialectalizationparticular prof
Page 172 and 173: 146 diphthonghas also been called t
Page 174 and 175: 148 discourseargues that languages
Page 176 and 177: 150 disharmonysignal can be analyse
Page 178 and 179: 152 distinctivenessfor particular s
Page 180 and 181: 154 distributed representationdistr
Page 182 and 183: 156 donkey sentenceand N are direct
Page 184 and 185: 158 downward entailinggenerally as
Page 186 and 187: 160 dynamic linguistics/phonetics/p
Page 188 and 189: 162 ecological linguisticscultural
Page 190 and 191: 164 egressiveegressive (adj.) A ter
Page 192 and 193: 166 elisionelision (n.) A term used
Page 194 and 195: 168 empiricismempiricism (n.) An ap
Page 196 and 197: 170 entrenchfollows from (is entail
Page 198 and 199: 172 equi NP deletionequative senten
Page 200 and 201: 174 état de languethe increased us
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176 evaluative(periodicity), such a
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178 exhaustivenessphonetics, the ap
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180 exponenceexponence (n.) A conce
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182 extralinguisticit is possible t
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Fface (n.) In pragmatics and intera
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186 fathereseremote degree of relat
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188 felicity conditionsfelicity con
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190 finite automataindependent sent
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192 flatflat (adj.) (1) A term used
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194 FOOTBINFOOTBIN (n.) In optimali
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196 formantformant (n.) (F) A term
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198 freeused to specify the range o
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200 front/r/ is often articulated i
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202 functional application/composit
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204 fusioncomponent in a complex so
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206 geminationgemination (n.) A ter
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208 generalized quantifier theoryse
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210 genitivegenitive (adj./n.) (gen
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212 gliding vowelgliding vowel see
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214 goaldifferent university centre
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216 government theorygovernment and
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218 grammar inductionterm tradition
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220 graphemegrapheme (n.) The minim
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222 ground nounground nounsee grind
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224 hapax legomenonhapax legomenon
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226 head-driven phrase-structure gr
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228 hiatusheuristic’), and used a
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230 hodiernallinguistic data; oppos
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232 horizontal grouping/splittingho
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Iiamb (n.) A traditional term in me
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236 idiomidiom (n.) A term used in
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238 imperfect tenseimperfect tense
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240 inclusivegiven an excluding int
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242 indicativehas come to be known
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244 inflectional language(2) (INFL,
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246 inheritanceinheritance (n.) A t
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248 instrumentaland business. As ot
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250 interlinguaview, phonology woul
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252 interruptibilityinterruptibilit
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254 invariablein generative grammar
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256 isoglossintervals throughout an
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JJakobsonian (adj.) Characteristic
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KKatz-Postal hypothesis A proposed
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262 knowledge about languageknowled
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264 labio-velarfor a labio-dental s
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266 language acquisition deviceof c
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268 language minorityin the USA); o
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270 last-cyclic rulesformer heading
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272 learninglanguage can in princip
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274 lenisstudied in terms of the nu
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276 level-skippinglevel-skipping (n
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278 lexical retrieval‘types’ is
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280 lexotacticsare used to simplify
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282 linear precedence rulelinear pr
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284 linguisticsrecent and rapid, ha
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286 lip-roundinglip-roundingsee rou
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288 locuscase form (‘a locative
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290 loopbackfollows the course of l
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Mmacrolinguistics (n.) A term used
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294 manner adverb(ial)features, sou
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296 markersentences illustrate this
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298 maximal-commandThe student who
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300 meaning constructionthe imperat
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302 meronymyto as ‘phonemic split
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304 metrical phonologyL3L2L1xthirwx
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306 minimal free formof go is Mary:
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308 mixingmixing (n.)M-level (n.)se
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310 modifiermodification-head-quali
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312 Montague grammarMontague gramma
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314 morpheme-based morphologymorphe
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316 morphotacticsmorphotactics (n.)
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318 multilingualthe same set of fea
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Nnarrative (adj./n.) An application
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322 nativismit as a second or forei
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324 negative concord(as in French n
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326 neurological linguisticsneurolo
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328 noiseThe notion has achieved sp
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330 non-definitenon-definite (adj.)
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332 non-sexist languagetable. Such
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334 noun incorporationare often des
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Oobject (n.) (O, Obj, OBJ) A term u
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338 obsoleteprevious era, such as l
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340 openThe structure is ill formed
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342 oppositionopposition (n.) A ter
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344 orderis introduced, correspondi
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346 overtThe notion of complete ove
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348 palato-alveolarwhole of the upp
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350 parametric phonetics(2) See par
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352 particleThe name comes from the
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354 past perfectpast perfectsee per
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356 perceptionperception (n.) The g
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358 peripheralat the next level, hi
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360 phatic communionduring which th
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362 phonemehave as few as fifteen p
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364 phonetic settingreflects the ai
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366 phonostylisticsboth of which re
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368 phylogenygenerative device. Phr
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370 pitch meteralso been applied to
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372 plethysmograph(2) In the study
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374 polysyllablelarge proportion of
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376 positive(e.g. unsuccessful cann
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378 postvocalicpostvocalic (adj.) I
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380 Prague Schoolto do with narrati
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382 predicate calculusfixed number
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384 prerequisitesprerequisites (n.)
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386 primitiveprimitive (adj./n.) An
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388 processprocedures, of which thr
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390 pro-formor pattern. A pattern i
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392 proprelative pronouns, e.g. who
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394 protasisunit, such as consonant
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396 psycholexicologyinterest, frigh
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Qqualia structure /ckwe}l}v/, singu
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400 questionproduce such changes, w
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402 rankclassical TG subject-raisin
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404 reassociationtaken together as
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406 recursively enumerableThese rul
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408 referentreferent (n.) A term us
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410 regular grammarthe notion was i
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412 relativized minimalityrelativiz
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414 resonanceresonance (n.) A term
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416 reversiblereversible (adj.)see
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418 right dislocationright dislocat
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420 root-and-patternapplies only to
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SS′ An abbreviation used in gener
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424 scansionby establishing four th
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426 segmentsegment (n.) A term used
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428 semanticitysemanticity (n.) A v
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430 semantic selectionsemantic sele
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432 semologythat of a vowel; though
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434 serial relationshiphe will win,
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436 sight translationa narrow, groo
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438 single-feature assimilationsing
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440 sluicingthe sentence The childr
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442 sonorantsonorant (adj./n.) (son
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444 space grammar(6) In the linguis
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446 speech actillocutionary force a
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448 speech timeacoustic or articula
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450 stabilityenriched by the inclus
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452 statistical universalthe aim of
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454 straysystem deals with an aspec
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456 stress-footbut in the phrase th
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458 structural ambiguitylargely dat
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460 stylisticsstylistics (n.) A bra
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462 subjectivesubjective (adj.)subj
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464 substratumsuperiority, as can b
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466 supplementary movementssuppleme
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468 syllableproduce consonants. Thi
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470 syndetonsynchronically to refer
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472 synthesisexamples: syntactical
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474 systematic phoneticssystematic
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476 tacticthe fact that their intui
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478 taxisrelationship. Combinations
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480 tensedTense forms (i.e. variati
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482 text deixisthe text in which th
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484 theolinguisticstheolinguistics
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486 tonal polaritytonal polarity se
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488 tonogenesison the meaning inten
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490 transcriptionliterary excellenc
Page 518 and 519:
492 transformation(where be is a fo
Page 520 and 521:
494 transitivitytransitivity (n.) A
Page 522 and 523:
496 triadictriadic (adj.) A term us
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498 truth valuefunctions which map
Page 526 and 527:
Uultimate constituent (UC) A term u
Page 528 and 529:
502 unfootedbinary feature matrices
Page 530 and 531:
504 universaluniversal (adj./n.) A
Page 532 and 533:
506 uvularBut it has proved very di
Page 534 and 535:
508 valleyvalley (n.)see peak, syll
Page 536 and 537:
510 velaricA loose auditory label f
Page 538 and 539:
512 vertical grouping/splittingwork
Page 540 and 541:
514 vocal lips(2) In phonetics, a t
Page 542 and 543:
516 voice qualifiersometimes made t
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518 vowel shiftvowel shiftsee sound
Page 546 and 547:
520 weak generative capacityweak ge
Page 548 and 549:
522 worddifferent structural types.
Page 550 and 551:
524 word grammarIn a more restricte
Page 552 and 553:
526 X-tierX-tier (n.) A term used i
Page 554 and 555:
Zzero (adj./n.) A term used in some
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A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics David Crystal

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