A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics David Crystal

stratificational grammar 453
Wales and begorrah in Ireland. Some stereotypical features, such as ain’t, may
become stigmatized as substandard or incorrect within the speech community.
William Labov (b. 1927) distinguishes stereotypes from indicators and markers.
stimulus (n.)
see poverty of the stimulus
stock (n.)
see family
stop (n.) A term used in the phonetic classification of speech sounds on the basis
of their manner of articulation. It refers to any sound which is produced
by a complete closure in the vocal tract, and thus traditionally includes
the class of plosives. Both nasal and oral sounds can be classified as stops,
though the term is usually reserved for the latter. A distinction is sometimes
made between ‘simple’ and ‘complex’ stops, depending on whether the closure is
made at one place or at two places simultaneously (e.g. the [f] coarticulation
heard in some African languages, or consonants produced with a simultaneous
glottal stop). Other classifications of stop consonants involve taking into
account the direction of airflow, whether ingressive or egressive: ‘ingressive
stops’ are often referred to as suction stops, ‘egressive stops’ as pressure stops.
In the distinctive feature theory of phonology, the term ‘stop’ is sometimes
used in opposition to continuant.
storage
see lexical storage, processing
stranding (n.) A term used in some grammars to refer to an element which
is left unattached after it has been moved out of a construction, or after
the rest of the construction has been moved. For example, a preposition is
commonly left stranded, after the noun phrase within the prepositional phrase
has been moved, as in Who did you give the book to?; the auxiliary verb did
is stranded after the ellipsis of the second clause in He asked her to arrive
before six, but she didn’t.
stratification (n.) In sociolinguistics, a term which refers to the distribution
of linguistic variables in relation to the various levels (strata) of society;
also called social stratification. When there is a clear-cut difference in the
way the members of two groups (e.g. working-class and middle-class) use a
linguistic variable, the phenomenon is called sharp stratification, a pattern often
seen with grammatical variation; when there is a step-like progression, the
effect is described as gradient stratification, a pattern typical of phonological
variation.
stratificational grammar A linguistic theory devised by the American linguist
Sydney M. Lamb (b. 1929), as expounded initially in Outline of Stratificational
Grammar (1962), which models language as a system of several related layers
(or strata) of structure. Six strata are recognized for English and many other
languages: the component of phonology comprises the hypophonemic (or
phonetic) and phonemic strata; grammar comprises morphemic and lexemic
strata; and semology comprises the sememic and hypersememic (or semantic)
strata. Each stratum is organized in terms of a set of stratal systems, and each