January 2012 Volume 15 Number 1 - Educational Technology ...

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A one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test was further used to increase power in the above one-way ANOVA by using pretest scores as covariates. It could control the initial differences in pretest scores to remove "covariate bias" or "selection bias", which weakens internal validity. The ANCOVA test yields a significant effect of the two prompted conditions compared to the non-prompted condition (F (2, 25) = 19.550, p < .05). However, the pair-wise comparison showed that there was no significant difference (p = .142) between the SP and GP groups as to the learning gains from pretest to posttest. Map Analysis in Main Study The quality of the students’ concept maps in the main study were evaluated to determine whether students’ conceptual understanding of elementary economics varied as they worked on agent tutee with different prompting strategies. Because no significant difference between groups was observed in the pre-test, the subsequent data analysis did not need a covariate. An overall performance comparison among the three groups on relevant concepts, relevant propositions, expert concepts and expert propositions is shown in Figure 5. ANOVA tests show that there were significant differences among the three groups as to relevant concepts (F (2, 26) = 29.264, p < .05), relevant propositions (F (2, 26) = 11.082, p < .05) , and expert concepts (F (2, 26) = 14.358, p < .05). The post-hoc tests of Gabriel’s procedure show that there are significant differences between the NP group and the SP group on relevant concepts (MD = 2.70, p < .05), relevant propositions (MD = 2.00, p < .05), and expert concepts (MD = 2.10, p < .05). There are also significant differences between the NP group and the GP group on relevant concepts (MD = 2.04, p < .05), relevant propositions (MD = 1.57, p < .05), expert concepts (MD = 1.18, p < .05). These results reveal the differences within the three groups. Both of the SP and GP groups showed higher performance than the NP group by working out significantly more relevant concepts, relevant propositions and expert concepts. However, the difference between the GP group and the SP group was not significant. Figure 6. Average <strong>Number</strong> of Relevant/Expert Concepts/Links in Transfer Test 347
Map Analysis in Transfer Test Figure 6 displays the average number of relevant and expert concepts and propositions in the student maps in ecology. There was no significant difference among the three groups with respect to the number of relevant propositions in the maps. But there were significant differences among the three groups as to relevant concepts (F (2, 26) = 4.702, p = .018) and expert concepts (F (2, 26) = 9. 744, p = .001). The overall results of the transfer test are reported in Table 3. The post-hoc tests of Gabriel’s procedure on the transfer test show the significant differences between the NP and GP groups on both relevant concepts (MD = .911, p = .0<strong>15</strong>) and expert concepts (MD = 1.256, p = .001). More importantly, there was also a significant difference between the GP and SP groups on the expert concepts (MD = .956, p = .010). Table 3. Overall Results of Transfer Test Groups Relevant Relevant Expert Expert Concepts Propositions Concepts Propositions M SD M SD M SD M SD NP 2.20 0.632 1.80 .789 2.30 .675 1.60 .699 SP 2.60 .516 2.50 .972 2.60 .516 2.20 .919 GP 3.11 a .782 2.56 .726 3.56 a, b .726 2.22 .833 a Significant greater than NP, p < .05 b Significant greater than SP, p < .05 In sum, the GP group outperformed both the NP and SP groups in the transfer test, while the difference between the NP group and the SP group was not prominent. The results showed that generic prompts have helped students to apply what they learnt from one knowledge domain to another knowledge domain. However, specific prompts did not exhibit transfer effects when time progressed and domain was changed. Analysis of Response Statements A detailed analysis of student response statements was conducted to gain a better understanding of the levels of reflection that each experimental group achieved. The prediction was that the students working with generic prompts should produce a higher level than students who worked with specific prompts. A sample transcript of Participants’ response statement is as follows to demonstrate both SP student and GP student responded to the purposefully designed same question prompts but showed different levels of reflection in their response statements. [Agent] What is the most important thing you tried to teach me? [SP Student Response] What is economics? (Reaction: Report facts) [GP Student Response] The universality of these links, causes and implications (Contemplation: Indicate a shift in thought). [Agent] What is/are the most important thing(s) you learn from me? [SP Student Response] Demand, supply and price are inter-related and contribute to the idea of economics in total. (Elaboration: Provide interpretive analysis of course concepts) [GP Student Response] What to do when approaching economics in real life. (Contemplation: Indicate a shift in attitude about himself) [Agent] Do you learn something from me? [SP Student Response] Yes, I learn how to organize my thoughts better. (Contemplation: Indicate a shift in attitude about himself) [GP Student Response] How to teach better and more clearly. (Contemplation: Indicate a shift in attitude about himself). 348
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January 2012 Volume 15 Number 1
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Supporting Organizations Centre for
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Analyzing the Learning Process of a
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Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2012).
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ased on an integration and evaluati
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ased on the assumption that no sing
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Diagram type D thinking (shown in F
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collaborative task in terms of inte
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Table 4. Descriptive statistics for
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Hong, N. S., Jonassen, D. H., & McG
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commercial off-the-shelf digital ga
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The post-questionnaire was used aft
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Phase Table 1. Phases and activitie
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Research results Describing student
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Assessment results for each one of
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References Annetta, L.A., Minogue,
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Huang, T.-W. (2012). Aberrance Dete
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Detection power Typically, the rela
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Results Detection rates As seen in
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2 .00 .05 3 .02 .10 1 .60 .40 ECI 4
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their easily understandable devices
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Ifenthaler, D. (2012). Determining
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activities is assumed to be reflect
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that the problem representations (i
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deductive reasoning inventory (33 m
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HIMATT structural measures The part
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outcomes, r = .297, p < .01. Accord
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Azevedo, R. (2009). Theoretical, co
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Seel, N. M. (1999b). Educational se
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Initially this paper explores defin
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gamers were boys, and 35% were girl
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Teachers underwent eight hours of p
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A correlation analysis was used to
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playing the game. This would mean P
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Yu, F. Y. (2012). Any Effects of Di
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Considering that identity concealme
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In the nickname group, the student
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Attitudes toward assessors Percepti
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Liu, Z. F., Chiu, C. H., Lin, S. S.
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Appendix A: Attitudes toward Peer-A
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Appendix C: Perception toward the I
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Han, H., & Johnson, S. D. (2012). R
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Research participants The target po
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that its value of cross-loading is
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The canonical variable for the emot
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Literature in the field of online l
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Cornelius, R. R. (1996). The scienc
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Shih, W.-C., Tseng, S.-S., Yang, C.
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To provide personalized (e-)learnin
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Figure 3. An illustrative example o
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elementary schools. Thus they are b
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Table 5. Descriptive statistics for
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References Abowd, G. D., & Atkeson,
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Tseng, K.-H., Chang, C.-C., Lou, S.
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Figure 1. The five stages of KT (Gi
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The use of learning strategies, mon
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Additionally, the above two scales
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Figure 3. Canonical structure betwe
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highly positive perception of CM an
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Langan-Fox, J., Platania-Phung, C.,
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Gömleksiz, M. N. (2012). Elementar
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any statistically significant diffe
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consideration in an educational set
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conditions of a learning environmen
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Kahle, J. B. (1983). The disadvanta
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Appendix A Science and Technology S
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(Guuawardena, Nola, Wilson, Lopez-I
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Questionnaire on student satisfacti
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G4 53 (12.5) 48.9 (13.4) 0.39 G5 51
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across the five levels of knowledge
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Santhanam, R., Sasidharan, S., Webs
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This paper reports only the early e
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Figure 1 illustrates how the abovem
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teacher/instructor continues to dom
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The instructor plays a significant
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Data collection and data sources Fi
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y turning over the responsibility t
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Brophy, J. (1999). Toward a model o
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Lawanto, O., Santoso, H. B., & Liu,
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such as grades and evaluation by ot
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students’ interest, expectancy fo
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constructs that measure students’
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Bandura, A. (1978). Reflections on
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Lin, J. M.-C., & Liu, S.-F. (2012).
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Table 1. The MSWLogo commands learn
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other words, we had prepared a set
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lab. When she returned and found th
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Attitudes toward Programming and Co
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Table 5 successfully, it took four
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Kuter, S., Altinay Gazi, Z., & Alti
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not only the means for trainees’
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Data Collection Techniques and Anal
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organizations was highlighted by on
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provides the means for professional
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Kohonen, V. (2001). Towards experie
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As Rogers (1995) postulates in his
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Instrument and data collection Afte
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“Raising our computer skills in C
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teachers deploy ICT tools in langua
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Ma, W., Anderson, R., & Streith, K.
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APPENDIX A. Questionnaire for Dista
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consistency with other ideas, and a
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conceptions, justifying their belie
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each group. The experimental group
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specifically, instructional approac
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Table 3 shows that the mean frequen
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previous Web-based instructional le
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Millar, R., & Osborne, J.F. (1998).
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Several studies explore the roles t
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understand the content structures o
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teacher was not allowed to provide
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two coding schemes, as illustrated
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also very limited. Teachers and sof
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learning activities. British Journa
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2009; Bernard & Cathryn, 2006) or p
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In this study, the focus of the ins
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The student’s degree of mastery i
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The questionnaire for the acceptanc
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the t-test result, it is found that
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Scale Questionnaire item Mean S.D.
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Hwang, G. J. (2003). A conceptual m
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sharing, problem solving, and achie
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Virtual learning environment In the
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Class Table 1. The survey questions
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“…the distance and the lack of
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collaboration within EVS, thus prev
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Huang, T.-H., Liu, Y.-C., & Chang,
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y personalised context examples in
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Students’ Problem-Solving Guidanc
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Research Method Figure 8. The scree
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Table 4. Abstract of Pairwise Compa
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questions designed for the system h
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Lee, J. (2012). Patterns of Interac
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This study focused on online fora i
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Results and Discussion Due date-cen
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In addition, all groups developed 8
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future. Therefore, they had an oppo
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surprising that most interaction wa
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Pawan, F., Paulus, T. M., Yalcin, S
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systems by using 18 personalization
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Short-Term Sensory Memory is a temp
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with respect to articles by using a
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system also computes a review value
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DFL. d ( yi ) is the degree of mem
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the experimental group can understa
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Finally, Figure 10(A) and Figure 10
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Appendix # Question Description Par
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mental models, are cognitive struct
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Based on the theoretical implicatio
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Data analysis To test the model fit
Page 301 and 302: may be considered an effective inte
Page 303 and 304: Hsu, I.-C. (2012). Intelligent Disc
Page 305 and 306: (Gradinarova, Zhelezov et al. 2006)
Page 307 and 308: RLO denotes a remote learning objec
Page 309 and 310: Figure 2. The flow-oriented LOFinde
Page 311 and 312: if x include with y, and y include
Page 313 and 314: Similarly, the relation metadata of
Page 315 and 316: (defrule student-advisor (triple (p
Page 317 and 318: References ADL. (2006). Sharable Co
Page 319 and 320: determinants of how people think, b
Page 321 and 322: Mediating effect of learning flow A
Page 323 and 324: The instrument used to measure lear
Page 325 and 326: addition, the cross-loadings of the
Page 327 and 328: and ease of use had significant eff
Page 329 and 330: Connell, J. P., Spencer, M. B., & A
Page 331 and 332: Despotović-Zrakić, M., Marković,
Page 333 and 334: Learning is a cognitive activity th
Page 335 and 336: The survey consisted of 30 question
Page 337 and 338: Created data mining model needs to
Page 339 and 340: dealt with the matter taught at the
Page 341 and 342: Conclusion Conducted research showe
Page 343 and 344: Romero, C., Ventura S., García E.,
Page 345 and 346: prompts as scaffolding strategy to
Page 347 and 348: Reflection Types This study attempt
Page 349 and 350: All the three groups completed the
Page 351: Results Learning Outcomes Pre- and
Page 355 and 356: Generic Prompts and Specific Prompt
Page 357 and 358: Biswas, G., Schwartz, D., Bransford
Page 359 and 360: Chen, Y.-H., Looi, C.-K., Lin, C.-P
Page 361 and 362: of correct response, answer until c
Page 363 and 364: Figure 7 shows a screenshot of one
Page 365 and 366: Collaboration Questionnaire results
Page 367 and 368: following diagrams. The double-arro
Page 369 and 370: “Most students were encouraged to
Page 371 and 372: Bangert-Drowns, R.L., Kulick, C. C.
Page 373 and 374: primary research questions. First,
Page 375 and 376: Individual learning Figure 2. Scree
Page 377 and 378: Experimental Tools This study emplo
Page 379 and 380: Table 3 shows that almost all items
Page 381 and 382: I usually engaged myself in listeni
Page 383 and 384: References Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (195
Page 385 and 386: APPENDIX 2. Taxonomy for Informatio
Page 387 and 388: understand how we can effectively u
Page 389 and 390: 5. Is there a relationship between
Page 391 and 392: correlation between teachers’ IWB
Page 393 and 394: Q7. IWB provides advantages to me t
Page 395 and 396: training regarding this topic. This
Page 397 and 398: Conclusion This study provides a so
Page 399: Smith, H. J., Higgins, S., Wall, K.
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January 2012 Volume 15 Number 1 - Educational Technology ...

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