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16This method of testing of structural elements worked well for this time period.Bridges typically were not designed by individual engineers, but rather were designed byan iron works company and then constructed. New methods in analyzing stresses andstrains in structures were just being developed and not yet commonly used in engineeringpractice. Material behavior was also not yet fully understood.In 1847, the Stephenson’s bridge over the River Dee in Chester England whichutilized cast iron beams, failed. This failure along with many other cast iron failuresresulted in an increase in materials testing and research. Many books like ExperimentalResearches on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron by Eaton Hodgkinson(1850) investigated cast irons’ material properties and determined that cast iron was notstrong in tension.By the 1860’s wrought iron and steel were being produced and commonly usedfor construction purposes. The material properties of these metals were extensivelyinvestigated. One source that encompassed all aspects of iron bridge construction is AComplete Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction by William Humber(1870). This source describes methods to analyze and design iron bridges. Importantly,a section on material properties is included. In this section Humber tested the strength ofwrought iron from different manufacturers throughout the country.One of the most comprehensive sets of data acquired for the strength of wroughtiron was completed by David Kirkaldy while he worked at Robert Napier’s VulcanFoundry Works in Glasgow. During this time period, the company was using wroughtiron and steel to construct boilers and pressure vessels and was interested in ensuring thematerials used were strong enough and well understood. Between 1858 and 1861,Kirkaldy completed a series of tensile load tests of common metals used during this time.He published Results of an Experimental Inquiry into the Comparative Tensile Strengthand other properties of various kinds of Wrought-Iron and Steel in 1862.
17In this testing, wrought iron bars, plates and other shapes were purchased fromdifferent merchants and makers to be tested. The origins of the testing samples werecarefully recorded. The bars were then tested in the testing machine at the foundry whereKirkaldy worked. This testing machine consisted of a simple counter weight machineusing a lever arm and lighter weights to load the specimens, as seen in Figure 2.6.Specimens were loaded slowly and observations of the maximum breaking weight, andpercent elongation for the wrought iron bars were recorded during and after testing. Theobservations recorded did not include the yield stress of the wrought iron since at thattime the idea of yield stress was not yet fully understood and was difficult to obtain.Kirkaldy tested approximately 310 wrought iron bars while he was at RobertNapier’s Vulcan Foundry Works in Glasgow. The results of these test results wherecopied and recorded from the paper he published in 1862, and can be found in AppendixA. The results show the average ultimate tensile stress that Kirkaldy found for thewrought iron bars was 55,420 psi. The standard deviation was 7,533 psi which was13.6% of the mean. A plot of these results is shown in Figure 2.7.Along with testing wrought iron bars, Kirkaldy also tested wrought iron plate andangle iron. The average ultimate strength found for angle iron, bar and plate werecalculated and are shown in Table 2.1. As can be seen in this table, the bar had thehighest ultimate strength while the plate had the lowest. The tensile stress results of theplate, angle iron, and bar were plotted together to achieve an average value for theultimate tensile stress of 52,000 psi with a standard deviation of 7,240 psi. The standarddeviation was 14% of the average found. A plot of all these results can be seen in Figure2.8.Kirkaldy also recorded the percent elongations for several wrought iron bars. Tofind the percent elongations Kirkaldy recorded the length of the specimen before andafter testing and the compared these values to find the percent elongation. Figure 2.9 is a
Page 1 and 2: Purdue UniversityPurdue e-PubsJTRP
Page 3: 1. Report No. 2. Government Accessi
Page 6 and 7: epairing a bent wrought iron tensio
Page 8 and 9: vPageCHAPTER 3TEST PROCEDURES FOR M
Page 10 and 11: ixLIST OF FIGURESFigurePageFigure 1
Page 12 and 13: xiFigurePageFigure 3.30 Top View of
Page 14 and 15: xiiiFigurePageFigure 5.12 Typical T
Page 16 and 17: xvAppendix FigurePageFigure D.7 Ini
Page 18 and 19: viiiAppendix TablePageTable A.5 Det
Page 20 and 21: iiiThe authors would also like to t
Page 22 and 23: 2but also what material properties
Page 24 and 25: 4microstructure of the metal. The c
Page 26 and 27: 62. LITERATURE SEARCHBefore experim
Page 28 and 29: 8imperfections, the performance of
Page 30 and 31: 10wrought iron. Adding the slag aft
Page 32 and 33: 12method for manufacturing wrought
Page 34 and 35: 14patents for their process and tra
Page 38 and 39: 18plot of this percent elongation d
Page 40 and 41: 20significant variation in the perc
Page 42 and 43: 22The practice of restoring histori
Page 44 and 45: 24Elleby, Wallace W. Sanders, F. Wa
Page 46 and 47: 26From all the surveys that were di
Page 48 and 49: 28Table 2.1 Average Ultimate Streng
Page 50 and 51: 30Figure 2.3 Wrought Iron “Sponge
Page 52 and 53: 32Histogram of Kirkaldy Wrought Iro
Page 54 and 55: 34Percent Occurance in Range - %45.
Page 56 and 57: 3660Combined Wrought Iron BarsTensi
Page 58 and 59: 38The Bell Ford Bridge consisted of
Page 60 and 61: 40Two. These samples were taken fro
Page 62 and 63: 42specimens were of constant cross
Page 64 and 65: 44Along with rectangular tensile co
Page 66 and 67: 46After the initial test loading wa
Page 68 and 69: 483.6 Fatigue TestingTo develop a b
Page 70 and 71: 50The final specimen category consi
Page 72 and 73: 52This analysis was completed using
Page 74 and 75: 54After the initial test was comple
Page 76 and 77: 56completed, but before the surface
Page 78 and 79: 58readings, load cell readings and
Page 80 and 81: 60Figure 3.3 Donated Eyebars 4 and
Page 82 and 83: 62Figure 3.7 Heated Areas in Blue o
Page 84 and 85: 64Figure 3.11 Detail Used in Groove
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66900080007000y = 27.153xR 2 = 0.99
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68Figure 3.19 Charpy Impact Testing
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70Figure 3.23 Eyebar Connection in
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72Figure 3.27 Eyebar A After Filler
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74Figure 3.31 Side View of Finished
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76Figure 3.35 Front View of Eyebar
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78strength from the existence of pe
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80The carbon content present in the
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82value may not be very accurate bu
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84strengths was found to be 29,940
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86wrought iron bars were investigat
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88stresses are induced. These perma
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90toughness the material. The test
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92From the finite element analysis,
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94Table 4.1 Chemical Analysis of Ey
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96Table 4.3 Tensile Coupon Test Res
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98Table 4.5 Charpy Impact Test Resu
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100Table 4.7 Comparison of Strain G
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102Figure 4.1 Typical Micrograph of
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104Figure 4.5 Fracture Surface of D
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106Comparison of Tensile Strengthfo
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108Combined Wrought Iron Bar Histor
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110Figure 4.17 Macrograph of Weld u
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112Figure 4.21 Cleavage Fracture of
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Figure 4.25 Elongation of Hole in E
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116signs on or near the bridge that
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118testing of historic wrought iron
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120so that they would act in symmet
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122The reasons for the differences
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124The second corrosion pattern mod
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126Keating (1984) stated that the s
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128charcoal fire until it is red ho
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130Figure 5.3 Picture of Bottom Cho
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132Figure 5.7 Using Force After Usi
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134Figure 5.11 Reassembling a Pin C
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1366. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPL
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138rectangular in shape. These eyeb
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140were joined together with a full
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1424. The Charpy impact energy of t
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144connections are unsymmetrical, i
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146LIST OF REFERENCESAASHTO (1998).
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148Hodgkinson, Eaton (1840). Experi
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150Appendix A. Data Collected From
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152Table A.1 Wrought Iron Bar Tensi
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154Table A.1 (continued) Wrought Ir
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156Table A.2 (continued) Wrought Ir
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158Table A.3 Wrought Iron Angle Ten
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160Table A.4 (continued) Summary of
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162Table A.4 (continued) Summary of
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164Table A.5 (continued) Detailed I
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184Table A.7 Tensile Strength Data
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186Table B.1 Example Historic Wroug
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188DepartmentofTransportationIf you
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190CountyIf your organizationdoes m
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192County 16: County bridge inspect
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194State 13: Included in original d
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196Figure C.1 Diagrams Showing Loca
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198Figure C.3 Heating of Eyebar fro
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200Figure C.7 Double V Butt Joint u
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202Figure C. 11 Welded Tensile Coup
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204Figure C.15 Tensile Coupon from
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206Figure C.19 Cooling Bath with Su
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208Figure C.23 Side View of Eyebar
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210Figure C.27 Eyebar End Connectio
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212Appendix D. Welding Procedure fo
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214D.2 Filler Weld for Eyebar Conne
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216Figure D.1 Weld Joint Detail Use
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Figure D.5 Completed Weld Before Su
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220Figure D.7 Initial Pass Pattern
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