In 1964, shortly after President Kennedy's assassination, theWHO created the International Reference Centre forImmunoglobulins at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland.Three years later, the WHO Regional Reference Centre forImmunology (Research and Training) was designated at the samesite. Its director, Dr. Rowe, reported that the center wasestablished to broaden the WHO's "range of activities" in-so-farasthe "study of antibodies and immunoglobulins," the naturallyproduced proteins that defend the body against attack by toxinsand germs. Rowe noted the WHO's special interest in cellmediatedimmunity, that is, the cells that recognize antigen(foreign proteins associated with germs and toxic substances),secrete antibody, and are themselves able to attack foreign cells.Primary defense cells, called lymphoid cells, Rowe noted, wereunder intensive investigation to determine how they initiated andmaintained the immune system, "paramount. . . in determiningthe pathogenic effects of infectious agents ranging from virusesto parasites." [17]"Apparently their experiments went well," I remarked. "InDecember 1969, the WHO issued its second five-year researchreport on viral experiments it had funded or conducted since1959."The report stated,"In the years 1964-68 the principal advances in virology were inknowledge of the fundamental structure of viruses and cells andof their interrelationships and interactions. A much greaterunderstanding was gained of the natural behavior of viruses asinfectious agents, of the pathogenesis of virus diseases, and of themeans of controlling many of the common virus diseases -generally by improving existing vaccines or by developing newones.""Though direct proof of a causal relationship between viruses andhuman cancer still escapes the numerous investigators workingon this subject, the quest continues to be energetically pursued.The hypothesis that at least some malignant neoplastic diseasessuch as leukemia are associated with virus infection is perhapseven more strongly expressed now than in the past." [18]The article went on to state that Russian and Americanresearchers were privy to the same vaccines, viral samples, andinformation about how the human immune system could bebolstered or destroyed by old and newly developed germs,including those produced from monkey viruses. [17,18]"All this during the cold war," Jackie noted.Green Monkeys, ʺSlowʺ <strong>Viruses</strong>, and $10 Million
"Strecker's material said that the DOD provided one contract in1970 for $10 million for the development of a syntheticbiological agent with no natural immunity. Which WHOreference center got that?" Jackie asked."It had to have been one in the U.S.""For sure, but where?""There were only two possibilities," I said, "Atlanta, Georgia, andBethesda, Maryland." [17-19]The Atlanta lab, was run by the CDC's predecessor - the NationalCommunicable Disease Center (NCDC). The Bethesda lab wasrun by the NIH. The later was cited in the WHO Chronicle as oneof the initial two International [virus] Reference Centers. Yet, itwas reported to be inadequately equipped to handle dangeroussmallpox viruses. These were allegedly handled in Atlanta."If that's the case, it's not likely they would have handled deadlyviruses like HIV either," Jackie reasoned."Not necessarily," I responded. "The smallpox virus and theDOD requisition may have posed different risks."Shortly after our conversation, an article by Charles Siebert in'The New York Times Magazine' clarified the biological safetylevel (BSL) risk rating system used by the CDC and the NIH:"In the hierarchy of precaution taken against biological threats atthe CDC, BSL I and 2 are the lowest level of safety. Work isdone there only with non - or moderate-risk organisms - virusesthat cause colds, for example, or bacteria that cause diarrhea. AtBSL 3, known as "the hot zone" or the "blue suit lab," workersvisit with highly transmissible viruses or with those viruses orbacteria for which there is no known cure. There are only twoBSL 4 labs in the country, one at the United States Army MedicalResearch Institute for Infectious Diseases [USAMRIID] at FortDetrick in Frederick, Md., and the one in Atlanta." [20]Our road atlas showed us Frederick was very close to Bethesda. Ipicked up the telephone to learn more.An administrator at the NCI's Thmor Cell Biology Lab inBethesda confIrmed Siebert's report. Additionally, the womantold me, "The AIDS virus is considered a BSL 3 hazard. It'sbeing studied in Bethesda as well as numerous labs across thenation."We also learned that, once developed, the most dangerous virusesplanned for use as biological weapons were shipped to the PineBluff Arsenal for storage. [21]Among the tens of thousands of viral strains cultured, developed,and transported for study by WHO reference centers, we learnedthat two received special attention and an inordinate share ofresearch dollars: monkey viruses, including the simian pox virus,and the "slow" viruses, particularly visna and scrapie. [17-19, 22]We read these reports carefully since Strecker noted the AIDSvirus bears the greatest likeness to the human-bovine (cow)
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HTLV-III publication in Francis's p
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the footprints of a retrovirus allo
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questions. Had Gallo been ashamed o
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Chapter 6Galloʹs Research Antholog
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That same year, Gallo and his cowor
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team discussed the synthesis of new
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STRINGNER S. YANGROBERT C. TINGBion
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and pellets seperated. The pellets
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[5] Gallo RC and Breitman TR. The e
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Chapter 7An Interview with Dr. Robe
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human viruses, and that the genetic
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LEN: Now, who was studying that?ROB
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father's recommendation that I coul
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LEN: OK. Explain this now. Why did
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the cancer virus. . . . Nixon was t
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LEN: OK.ROBERT: And. . . that's the
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ROBERT: If you look in the world, w
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ROBERT: They're in the references [
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started with BVV.ROBERT: Well, in t
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LEN: OK. So what happens then?ROBER
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apology Gorbachev offered Reagan ac
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slowly, and not fast. And that they
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immunodeficiency virus. Nature 1987
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GalloRC. Aminoacyl Transfer RNA Pro
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history, organization, and program