nation. There is but one logical course to pursue, namely, tostudy the possibilities of such warfare from every angle, makeevery preparation for reducing its effectiveness, and therebyreduce the likelihood of its use." [9]A couple months after this report to President Roosevelt, Stimsonwas authorized to develop a civilian agency to "take the lead onall aspects of biological warfare." It was assigned to the FederalSecurity Agency (FSA) to obscure its existence, and GeorgeMerck was named director of the new War Research Service(WRS). [9]As a result of this covert effort, according to Detrick's publicrelations director, "recombinant DNA research techniques" werebeing employed "through which certain organisms. . . [were]cloned to produce weaker, stronger or mutations of the original."These experiments, Covert wrote, became the "legacies of FortDetrick, but it was not done in the Fort Detrick laboratories."In other words, I thought, the road to Fort Detrick leads throughBethesda. If Covert printed the truth, the AIDS-like virusprototypes were developed outside the Fort and brought in fortesting. The only other regional facilities with the means andorganisms needed to produce immune-system-destroying viruses,in 1969-1970, was right down the road in Bethesda at the NCI'slabs, [12] or in West Point, Pennsylvania at MSD's. [10]The NAS on CBWOn October 13, 1969, following the onslaught of opposition toFort Detrick's silver anniversary festivities and the internationalCBW race in general, the NAS responded - not by disclosing itsclandestine efforts to support the development and testing of BWand antidotes, but by addressing the controversy at a"Symposium on Chemical and Biological Warfare." [13] Themeeting was chaired by Dr. Matthew S. Meselson, Director of theBiological Laboratories, Harvard University, and included threepresentations from American CBW notables.Attorney George Bunn, a former General Counsel for the UnitedStates Arms Control and Disarmament Agency presented asession dealing with "Gas and Germ Warfare: International LegalHistory and Present Status," during which he heralded the"success" of "the Geneva Protocol of 1925 which prohibits theuse of gasses and bacteriological methods of warfare. More than80 countries have ratified this treaty. . . . Many in recent years.The United States, the one country most responsible for thedrafting of the treaty, has still not become a party to it," he noted.[13]The chairman, commenting on Bunn's presentation, wrote:"This winter a group of 21 nonaligned states at the UnitedNational General Assembly introduced a resolution declaring as
contrary to international law as embodied in the Geneva Protocolthe use in war of all toxic chemical agents directed at men,animals, or plants. Its sponsors made clear that the resolutionapplied to irritant gases and anti-plant chemicals such as thoseused by the United States in Vietnam. Just this month, theresolution was passed by a vote of 80 to 3, with only Portugal,Australia, and the United States in opposition." [13]Next, Han Swyter, formerly with the DOD, addressed the NASassembly with the "Political Considerations and Analysis ofMilitary Requirements for Chemical and Biological Weapons."He commented:"We are talking about a dollar magnitude of only hundreds ofmillions of dollars annually. This is insignificant in an $80 billionDefense budget. On the other hand, these funds could instead bespent on other scientific or medical research, on welfare, or onhousing. . . ."The entire chemical and biological warfare research budget for1969, Covert reported, was $300 million. Research forherbicides, such as the ones used in Vietnam that were "designedto kill food crops or strip trees of foliage to deprive enemy forcesof ground cover," was granted $5 million. [9] I found itinteresting that twice this amount - $10 million - was requestedand received by DOD for developing an AIDS-like virus thatsame year. [14]After reading this, I reflected on Covert's admission in 'CuttingEdge' that despite preparations for President Nixon to ratify the1925 Geneva Accord, "Nixon assured Fort Detrick its researchwould continue."Lt. Col. Lucien Winegar, Covert wrote, said it would "be fair toassume" that the Frederick, MD labs:". . . would continue to work with dangerous organisms used inoffensive BW since any defense required knowledge of thoseagents. Continuation of the defensive research program wasauthorized in the biological warfare convention." [9]The ʺGrisly Businessʺ of CBWWithin months of Winegar's announcement, Swyter said beforethe NAS:"Chemical and biological war is grisly business. I am going toapproach it unemotionally, much as an economist analyzes theneed for mythical widgets, rather than like a Dr. Strangelove,gleefully plotting the destruction of millions by plague oranthrax. My general approach - that is, identifying objectives,breaking the problem into smaller manageable parts, and examine
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EMERGING VIRUSES: AIDS &EBOLANature
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inherent in the production of live
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- Page 10 and 11: mass of circumstantial and scientif
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- Page 14 and 15: NIAID-National Institute for Allerg
- Page 16 and 17: Part IIntroduction and Scientific B
- Page 18 and 19: viruses in the cow carcasses used t
- Page 20 and 21: depend to maintain our relative fre
- Page 22 and 23: ʺThe WHO Does What?ʺ"The only thi
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- Page 26 and 27: In 1964, shortly after President Ke
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- Page 34 and 35: Chronicle 1969;23;3:112-117.[20] Si
- Page 36 and 37: In February 1967, as international
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- Page 48 and 49: [17] Horowitz LG and Kehoe L. Fear
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- Page 52 and 53: information, I decided to call the
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- Page 60 and 61: weapons, and all other methods of b
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- Page 82 and 83: Chapter 6Galloʹs Research Antholog
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- Page 86 and 87: That same year, Gallo and his cowor
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- Page 90 and 91: STRINGNER S. YANGROBERT C. TINGBion
- Page 92 and 93: and pellets seperated. The pellets
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- Page 96 and 97: Chapter 7An Interview with Dr. Robe
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the cancer virus. . . . Nixon was t
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LEN: OK.ROBERT: And. . . that's the
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ROBERT: If you look in the world, w
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ROBERT: They're in the references [
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started with BVV.ROBERT: Well, in t
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LEN: OK. So what happens then?ROBER
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apology Gorbachev offered Reagan ac
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slowly, and not fast. And that they
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immunodeficiency virus. Nature 1987
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GalloRC. Aminoacyl Transfer RNA Pro
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history, organization, and program