The Art of the Helicopter John Watkinson - Karatunov.net

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Introduction to helicopter dynamics 115 Fig. 3.44 The aeroelasticity effect loop in a rotor blade. The blades are not rigid and can flex. This will affect their local angle of attack, changing the lift distribution that in turn causes flexing. Fig. 3.45 (a) If the blade has greater bending stiffness at the leading edge, it will wash out as lift increases. This is a stable condition as wash-out reduces the lift. (b) If the trailing edge is stiffer than the leading edge, lift causes wash-in that will further increase the lift. Such a blade would suffer serious flutter and probably disintegrate. called aeroelasticity. As it is clear that the aerodynamics affect the flexing, then there is a loop. This loop may be stable or unstable. Part of the design process must be to ensure that aeroelastic effects always result in blade stability. The shape of the blade is completely defined by the root cut-out, the tip shape, the degree of twist and taper and by the blade section used, which may change with radius. Assuming first a rigid blade, the blade shape will allow the time variant aerodynamic forces to be predicted in a given flight regime. The way the blade responds to this excitation is complicated. The torsional forces depend on the locus of the centre of pressure with respect to the mass centroid. The effect of flight loads on blade twisting is significant because twist will alter the local angle of attack as well as feeding loads back into the control system. The degree of twisting depends on the moment of inertia, the stiffness, the damping and the frequency. The chord-wise distribution of stiffness needs to be known accurately. Figure 3.45(a) shows a blade in which the leading edge is stiffer than the trailing edge. The application of lift at the centre of pressure causes the blade to wash out; a stable condition. However, Figure 3.45(b) shows a blade in which the trailing edge is stiffer than the leading edge. Here lift causes the blade to wash in; leading to flutter. As a result blades are
116 The Art of the Helicopter generally constructed in such a way that the mass centroid and the centre of bending stiffness is well forward on the chord. The result is a section where the structural mass is concentrated in a D-shaped structure at the leading edge, with the trailing part of the section being comprised of a low density structure. Blade taper is not always employed because in practice the penalty of a constant chord blade is only a few per cent. Taper prevents constructional techniques such as extrusion that requires a constant section. Blade twist is advantageous in hover, but the ideal amount for hover will be detrimental in translational flight because the application of cyclic pitch may cause the finely pitched blade tips to go to a negative angle of attack. The exception to this restriction is in the tilt rotor aircraft that both hovers and cruises with axial inflow. This gives the designer more freedom to use blade twist and this is clearly visible in rotors of the Bell-Boeing Osprey.
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The Art of the Helicopter
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The Art of the Helicopter John Watk
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Contents Preface xi Acknowledgement
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4.12 Feathering 134 4.13 Pitch cont
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8.5 Power management 326 8.6 Flying
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xii Preface reader to make sense of
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1 Introduction to rotorcraft 1.1 Ap
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Introduction to rotorcraft 3 Fig. 1
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Introduction to rotorcraft 9 for th
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Introduction to rotorcraft 11 Fig.
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Introduction to rot
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Fig. 1.18 The contra-rotating coaxi
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Fig. 1.20 The structure of a light
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Introduction to rotorcraft 19 wings
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Introduction to rotorcraft 21 a rot
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Technical background 23 Fig. 2.1 At
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Fig. 2.3 Effect of force on velocit
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C Force A E Resultant (a) Force B (
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(a) (b) Technical background 29 Fig
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Technical background 31 Fig. 2.11 A
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Technical background 33 Fig. 2.12 (
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Technical background 35 If the volu
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Fig. 2.16 The definition of a radia
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Technical background 39 force would
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Technical background 41 Figure 2.20
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Technical background 43 force where
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Technical background 45 the cosine
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Technical background 47 Fig. 2.28 F
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Technical background 49 Fig. 2.30 T
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Technical background 51 centripetal
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2.17 The gyroscope Technical backgr
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Technical background 55 of oscillat
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Technical background 57 the inertia
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Technical background 59 shut down a
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3 Introduction to helicopter dynami
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Introduction to helicopter dynamics
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Page 100 and 101: (a) (c) (b) Introduction to helicop
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Page 106 and 107: Fig. 3.23 Conditions for hover and
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Page 132 and 133: 4.1 Introduction 4 Rotors in practi
Page 134 and 135: (a) (b) Rotors in practice 119 Fig.
Page 136 and 137: Rotors in practice 121 Designers of
Page 138 and 139: Rotors in practice 123 opposite occ
Page 140 and 141: Rotors in practice 125 Fig. 4.6 (a)
Page 142 and 143: Rotors in practice 127 assembly tha
Page 144 and 145: Rotors in practice 129 Pitch change
Page 146 and 147: × T=c× D Rotors in practice 131 F
Page 148 and 149: Rotors in practice 133 In a real he
Page 150 and 151: Rotors in practice 135 Fig. 4.15 Va
Page 152 and 153: (a) (b) Rotors in practice 137 Fig.
Page 154 and 155: Rotors in practice 139 Fig. 4.18 Th
Page 156 and 157: Rotors in practice 141 swashplate a
Page 158 and 159: Fig. 4.23 A fixed-pitch tilting hea
Page 160 and 161: Rotors in practice 145 Fig. 4.25 Bl
Page 162 and 163: Rotors in practice 147 Fig. 4.27 Ef
Page 164 and 165: Rotors in practice 149 Fig. 4.29 (a
Page 166 and 167: Rotors in practice 151 concerned ar
Page 168 and 169: Rotors in practice 153 and lag damp
Page 170 and 171: Rotors in practice 155 disappears a
Page 172 and 173: (d) (e) (f) Rotors in practice 157
Page 174 and 175: Rotors in practice 159 hull and a v
Page 176 and 177: Rotors in practice 161 Fig. 4.35 (C
Page 178 and 179: Rotors in practice 163 Abrasion is
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Rotors in practice 165 There are so
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eing more visible to ground personn
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otates the rod in the screw thread.
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In the case of a rotor having offse
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The tail rotor designer is faced wi
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Fig. 5.5 A right-side wrong-directi
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centre of mass. The solution was to
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safe to start the rotors. However,
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Fig. 5.10 Tail plane locations: (a)
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Fig. 5.12 (a) A top-mounted fin is
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Fig. 5.14 (a) Main rotor lateral ro
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long. The cross-section of the duct
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drag. However, the slots are emitti
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6 Engines and transmissions The pow
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Engines and transmissions 193 the D
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(a) (b) Engines and transmissions 1
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(a) (b) (c) Engines and transmissio
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Fig. 6.5 A typical horizontally opp
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Engines and transmissions 201 the v
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Engines and transmissions 203 The c
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6.9 The oil system Engines and tran
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Engines and transmissions 207 (non-
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(a) (b) Engines and transmissions 2
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Engines and transmissions 211 a hot
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Engines and transmissions 213 Fig.
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Engines and transmissions 215 In wa
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Engines and transmissions 217 is a
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Engines and transmissions 221 own t
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Fig. 6.16 The complex fuel system o
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Engines and transmissions 233 and c
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Engines and transmissions 237 Sensi
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Engines and transmissions 243 the A
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Fig. 6.37 Displays which may be see
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Engines and transmissions 251 slipr
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Engines and transmissions 253 a fau
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Engines and transmissions 255 resul
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Engines and transmissions 257 The p
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Fig. 7.1 (a) A minimal control loop
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Fig. 7.2 (a) When attitude conditio
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fixed point in the hover despite ex
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(a) (b) Fig. 7.4 (a) The earth beha
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7.4 Compass errors A magnetic compa
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In most cases the machine will have
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Fig. 7.7 The remote indicator for a
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is set by the use of a control knob
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Fig. 7.11 The VSI (vertical speed i
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Fig. 7.13 A chaser system which all
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e modified if the gyro is in a movi
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must be in steady flight when the D
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arranged on opposite sides of the p
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Fig. 7.19 The turn indicator is spr
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7.17 Airflow-sensing devices The he
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Fig. 7.24 Using RADAR signals. At (
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Fig. 7.27 Transducers used in signa
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Fig. 7.28 In PCM or digital signall
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(a) Fig. 7.30 Using slicing and rec
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Fig. 7.33 The false codes created i
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Fig. 7.35 In a pure binary system,
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Fig. 7.38 Producing two’s complem
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Fig. 7.40 A power-assisted hydrauli
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Fig. 7.42 An electro-hydraulic valv
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path axis and the flybar axis diver
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and autostabilization, it also prov
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Fig. 7.47 The Lockheed gyrobar syst
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Fig. 7.49 In the Lockheed AMCS, the
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Fig. 7.50 With the autopilot diseng
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or without the AFCS. Systems of thi
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Thus if a VOR receiver detected a 9
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7.29 Fault tolerance In feedback sy
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8 Helicopter performance 8.1 Introd
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Helicopter performance 325 column i
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Helicopter performance 327 Fig. 8.1
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Helicopter performance 329 to skid
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(a) (b) Helicopter performance 331
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Helicopter performance 333 Fig. 8.7
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8.7 Climbingand descending Helicopt
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Helicopter performance 337 In the c
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Helicopter performance 339 of its c
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8.10 Stability Helicopter performan
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Fig. 8.13 The origin of pitchup ins
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Helicopter performance 345 moment f
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9 Other types of rotorcraft Althoug
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Other types of rotorcraft 349 De la
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Other types of rotorcraft 351 Fig.
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Other types of rotorcraft 353 incre
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Other types of rotorcraft 355 and c
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Fig. 9.7 The Bell-Boeing Osprey til
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(a) (b) Other types of rotorcraft 3
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Other types of rotorcraft 365 a low
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Other types of rotorcraft 367 the y
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Other types of rotorcraft 371 the r
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Other types of rotorcraft 373 For e
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Acceleration: and force, 22-5 and v
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Convertiplane, 11-12, 355-8 Bell-Bo
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tanks, 219-20 turbine engines, 237-
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Lockheed flybar system, 309-13 AMCS
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centrifugal stiffening, 71, 100 and
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tail/main rotor interaction, 173 te
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