The Art of the Helicopter John Watkinson - Karatunov.net

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Engines and transmissions 193 the Diesel fundamentally more fuel efficient than the gasoline engine as will be seen in section 6.14. Traditionally, however, the Diesel engine has been neglected in aviation although some Diesel powered aircraft flew in World War II. The automotive industry has dramatically improved Diesel performance in recent years and has shown that the Diesel engine lends itself very well to turbocharging. With modern technology the turbo-Diesel engine can equal the power of a gasoline engine for a given time between overhaul (TBO), but with better fuel economy so that the weight of engine plus mission fuel is actually less. Given that Diesel engines can run on AVTUR, which is significantly cheaper and less volatile than AVGAS, the economic and safety advantage of a Diesel engine is significant. 6.3 A piston-engine installation Figure 6.1 shows the layout of the engine and transmission in a typical light pistonengine machine. Many light helicopters use an air- and oil-cooled engine originally designed for aeroplane use in which the crankshaft will clearly be horizontal. These typically have four cylinders arranged with a pair on each side. This arrangement is called a ‘flat four’ also known as a ‘boxer’ because the pistons on opposite sides appear to be sparring with each other. The propeller is replaced by the cooling fan and possibly a belt drive pulley. The cooling fan directs air through a series of baffles so that it passes round the cylinders. Some of the air is directed through the oil cooler. The centrifugal cooling fan of the Robinson R-22 is a conspicuous feature of the machine. The Enstrom has an axial fan. Piston engines do not provide uniform torque because of the power impulses when each cylinder fires, and it is necessary to have some flexibility in the transmission to even out the power delivery. Even so, the transmission of a piston-engine helicopter has to be stronger to withstand the fluctuating torque. The use of anti-vibration technology in the drive train to smooth out the power impulses of piston engines with torsional tuned filters is in its infancy. Currently, flexibility in the drive train may be provided by using a belt drive and by mounting the engine on rubber blocks. The belts used are reinforced with polyester chords and have a tapering cross-section intended to run in vee-shaped grooves in the pulleys. Belt tension wedges the belt into the groove so that Fig. 6.1 The drive train arrangement used in a number of light piston-engine helicopters including Robinson, Enstrom and Schweizer models. The piston engine drives a cooling fan and a belt pulley. The belt drives a shaft between the main and tail gearboxes. The upper pulley contains a one-way clutch to allow the rotors to turn if the engine fails.
194 The Art of the Helicopter slipping will not occur. Machines vary in detail; the Robinson uses two double-vee belts, the Schweizer uses eight single belts, and the Enstrom uses a single Poly-vee belt about six inches wide. Belts can last as long as five years, but flying in dusty conditions causes more rapid wear. The belt drive commonly does duty as the clutch. By slackening the belt tension, the engine can be started and warmed up without the rotors turning. When the engine is warm the belt tension is applied gradually so that the belt can slip in order to spin up the rotors smoothly. Once the rotors are up to engine speed the full flight tension can be applied. Starting the engine with the clutch engaged should never be attempted. In the Robinson the starter is powerful enough to turn engine and rotors, but when the engine fires the sudden speed increase could damage the main rotor blades. In an Enstrom the rotor blades are heavy and articulated and instead the result would probably be a burned-out starter. The belt tensioning is performed in various ways. In the Robinson the shaft between the main and tail rotors is supported near the pulleys by a bearing that can be raised and lowered by a small electric gear motor. The flexible couplings in the shaft allow this movement. The belt tension is measured and the motor can only run until the correct tension is achieved. Some care is needed when operating the motor switch; rapid engagement will stall the engine. In the Enstrom the belt is tensioned by bringing in a jockey pulley against the flat outer side of the belt. This is mechanically operated by cable from a lever in the cockpit. When the drive is fully engaged a system of links passes over centre and maintains belt tension with no tension in the cable. In this system the pilot has better control of the clutch engagement force. In the Schweizer the belts are tightened by pulling out an idler pulley with a steel wire driven by a servo motor. The wire is permanently in tension. In all of these machines, the upper belt pulley drives the long shaft joining the main rotor gearbox and the tail rotor gearbox. The pulley on the gearbox shaft has a one-way clutch inside it so that the engine can drive the shaft but the shaft cannot drive the engine. If the engine fails, or, worse still, siezes, the rotors can still turn freely so that an autorotation can be performed. 6.4 A turbine installation As will be seen in section 6.19, turbine engines are found in two types. In the first there is only one rotating assembly and this is integral with the output shaft. No starting clutch is necessary because the starter motor spins the turbine and the rotor. In the preferred type of turbine engine there are two power turbines. The first generates shaft power to turn the compressor. The second turbine develops shaft power to drive the helicopter. Engines of this type are called free turbine engines because there is no mechanical connection between the first part of the engine, which is essentially a gas generator, and the second part that converts gas energy to shaft power. The gas generator may be spun with the starter motor even though the free turbine is locked by a rotor brake. In this way the engine can be started without the rotors turning. If the brake is released and the power is increased, the rotors will run up smoothly. The free turbine engine also has the advantage that the rotors can be stopped without stopping the engine. The turbine is set to idle power and produces minimal torque at the free turbine. The rotor can be stopped with the rotor brake. The turbine itself is light and often mounted on or in the roof of the hull. Figure 6.2(a) shows the arrangement in the JetRanger. The power turbine gear train, through the autorotation clutch, drives the tail rotor shaft to the rear and the main rotor shaft to the front. The main rotor gearbox is resiliently mounted and the drive shaft is fitted with
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The Art of the Helicopter
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The Art of the Helicopter John Watk
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Contents Preface xi Acknowledgement
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4.12 Feathering 134 4.13 Pitch cont
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8.5 Power management 326 8.6 Flying
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xii Preface reader to make sense of
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1 Introduction to rotorcraft 1.1 Ap
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Introduction to rotorcraft 3 Fig. 1
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Introduction to rotorcraft 9 for th
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Introduction to rotorcraft 11 Fig.
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Introduction to rot
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Fig. 1.18 The contra-rotating coaxi
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Fig. 1.20 The structure of a light
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Introduction to rotorcraft 19 wings
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Introduction to rotorcraft 21 a rot
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Technical background 23 Fig. 2.1 At
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Fig. 2.3 Effect of force on velocit
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C Force A E Resultant (a) Force B (
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(a) (b) Technical background 29 Fig
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Technical background 31 Fig. 2.11 A
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Technical background 33 Fig. 2.12 (
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Technical background 35 If the volu
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Fig. 2.16 The definition of a radia
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Technical background 39 force would
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Technical background 41 Figure 2.20
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Technical background 43 force where
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Technical background 45 the cosine
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Technical background 47 Fig. 2.28 F
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Technical background 49 Fig. 2.30 T
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Technical background 51 centripetal
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2.17 The gyroscope Technical backgr
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Technical background 55 of oscillat
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Technical background 57 the inertia
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Technical background 59 shut down a
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3 Introduction to helicopter dynami
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Introduction to helicopter dynamics
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(a) (c) (b) Introduction to helicop
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Introduction to hel
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Fig. 3.23 Conditions for hover and
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(a) (b) Introduction to helicopter
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(a) (b) Introduction to helicopter
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4.1 Introduction 4 Rotors in practi
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(a) (b) Rotors in practice 119 Fig.
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Rotors in practice 121 Designers of
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Rotors in practice 123 opposite occ
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Rotors in practice 125 Fig. 4.6 (a)
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Rotors in practice 127 assembly tha
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Rotors in practice 129 Pitch change
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× T=c× D Rotors in practice 131 F
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Rotors in practice 133 In a real he
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Rotors in practice 135 Fig. 4.15 Va
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(a) (b) Rotors in practice 137 Fig.
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Rotors in practice 139 Fig. 4.18 Th
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Rotors in practice 141 swashplate a
Page 158 and 159: Fig. 4.23 A fixed-pitch tilting hea
Page 160 and 161: Rotors in practice 145 Fig. 4.25 Bl
Page 162 and 163: Rotors in practice 147 Fig. 4.27 Ef
Page 164 and 165: Rotors in practice 149 Fig. 4.29 (a
Page 166 and 167: Rotors in practice 151 concerned ar
Page 168 and 169: Rotors in practice 153 and lag damp
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Page 172 and 173: (d) (e) (f) Rotors in practice 157
Page 174 and 175: Rotors in practice 159 hull and a v
Page 176 and 177: Rotors in practice 161 Fig. 4.35 (C
Page 178 and 179: Rotors in practice 163 Abrasion is
Page 180 and 181: Rotors in practice 165 There are so
Page 182 and 183: eing more visible to ground personn
Page 184 and 185: otates the rod in the screw thread.
Page 186 and 187: In the case of a rotor having offse
Page 188 and 189: The tail rotor designer is faced wi
Page 190 and 191: Fig. 5.5 A right-side wrong-directi
Page 192 and 193: centre of mass. The solution was to
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Page 196 and 197: Fig. 5.10 Tail plane locations: (a)
Page 198 and 199: Fig. 5.12 (a) A top-mounted fin is
Page 200 and 201: Fig. 5.14 (a) Main rotor lateral ro
Page 202 and 203: long. The cross-section of the duct
Page 204 and 205: drag. However, the slots are emitti
Page 206 and 207: 6 Engines and transmissions The pow
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Page 212 and 213: (a) (b) (c) Engines and transmissio
Page 214 and 215: Fig. 6.5 A typical horizontally opp
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Page 218 and 219: Engines and transmissions 203 The c
Page 220 and 221: 6.9 The oil system Engines and tran
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Page 226 and 227: Engines and transmissions 211 a hot
Page 228 and 229: Engines and transmissions 213 Fig.
Page 230 and 231: Engines and transmissions 215 In wa
Page 232 and 233: Engines and transmissions 217 is a
Page 236 and 237: Engines and transmissions 221 own t
Page 238 and 239: Fig. 6.16 The complex fuel system o
Page 248 and 249: Engines and transmissions 233 and c
Page 252 and 253: Engines and transmissions 237 Sensi
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Engines and transmissions 243 the A
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Engines and transmissions 245 Fig.
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Fig. 6.37 Displays which may be see
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Engines and transmissions 249 Fig.
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Engines and transmissions 251 slipr
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Engines and transmissions 253 a fau
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Engines and transmissions 255 resul
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Engines and transmissions 257 The p
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Fig. 7.1 (a) A minimal control loop
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Fig. 7.2 (a) When attitude conditio
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fixed point in the hover despite ex
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(a) (b) Fig. 7.4 (a) The earth beha
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7.4 Compass errors A magnetic compa
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In most cases the machine will have
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Fig. 7.7 The remote indicator for a
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is set by the use of a control knob
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Fig. 7.11 The VSI (vertical speed i
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Fig. 7.13 A chaser system which all
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e modified if the gyro is in a movi
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must be in steady flight when the D
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arranged on opposite sides of the p
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Fig. 7.19 The turn indicator is spr
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7.17 Airflow-sensing devices The he
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Fig. 7.24 Using RADAR signals. At (
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Fig. 7.27 Transducers used in signa
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Fig. 7.28 In PCM or digital signall
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(a) Fig. 7.30 Using slicing and rec
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Fig. 7.33 The false codes created i
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Fig. 7.35 In a pure binary system,
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Fig. 7.38 Producing two’s complem
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Fig. 7.40 A power-assisted hydrauli
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Fig. 7.42 An electro-hydraulic valv
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path axis and the flybar axis diver
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and autostabilization, it also prov
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Fig. 7.47 The Lockheed gyrobar syst
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Fig. 7.49 In the Lockheed AMCS, the
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Fig. 7.50 With the autopilot diseng
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or without the AFCS. Systems of thi
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Thus if a VOR receiver detected a 9
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7.29 Fault tolerance In feedback sy
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8 Helicopter performance 8.1 Introd
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Helicopter performance 325 column i
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Helicopter performance 327 Fig. 8.1
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Helicopter performance 329 to skid
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(a) (b) Helicopter performance 331
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Helicopter performance 333 Fig. 8.7
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8.7 Climbingand descending Helicopt
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Helicopter performance 337 In the c
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Helicopter performance 339 of its c
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8.10 Stability Helicopter performan
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Fig. 8.13 The origin of pitchup ins
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Helicopter performance 345 moment f
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9 Other types of rotorcraft Althoug
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Other types of rotorcraft 349 De la
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Other types of rotorcraft 351 Fig.
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Other types of rotorcraft 353 incre
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Other types of rotorcraft 355 and c
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Fig. 9.7 The Bell-Boeing Osprey til
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(a) (b) Other types of rotorcraft 3
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Other types of rotorcraft 365 a low
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Other types of rotorcraft 367 the y
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Other types of rotorcraft 371 the r
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Other types of rotorcraft 373 For e
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Acceleration: and force, 22-5 and v
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Convertiplane, 11-12, 355-8 Bell-Bo
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tanks, 219-20 turbine engines, 237-
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Lockheed flybar system, 309-13 AMCS
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centrifugal stiffening, 71, 100 and
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tail/main rotor interaction, 173 te
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