actually prevent the growth <strong>of</strong> certain microorganisms. 52–55 Such studies have again led to suggestions that chitosan can be used as a food preservative, <strong>and</strong> the reader is referred to a recent review on this subject. 38 REFERENCES © 2004 by CRC Press LLC 1. S<strong>and</strong>ford, P.A., Commercial sources <strong>of</strong> chitin <strong>and</strong> chitosan <strong>and</strong> their utilization, in Advances in Chitin Sciences, Vårum, K.M., Domard, A., <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Eds., NTNU Trondheim, Trondheim, 6, 35, 2003. 2. Kurita, K., Controlled functionalization <strong>of</strong> the polysaccharide chitin, Prog. Polym. Sci. 26, 1921, 2001. 3. Roberts, G.A.F., Chitin Chemistry, Macmillan, Houndmills, UK, 1992. 4. Nanjo, F., Katsumi, R. <strong>and</strong> Sakai, K., Enzymatic method for determination <strong>of</strong> the degree <strong>of</strong> deacetylation <strong>of</strong> chitosans, Anal. Biochem., 193, 164, 1991. 5. Niola, F. et al., A rapid method for the determination <strong>of</strong> the degree <strong>of</strong> N-acetylation <strong>of</strong> chitin-chitosan samples by acid hydrolysis <strong>and</strong> HPLC, Carbohydr. Res., 238, 1, 1993. 6. Hirano, S. <strong>and</strong> Yamaguchi, R., N-Acetylchitosan gel: a polyhydrate <strong>of</strong> chitin, Biopolymers, 15, 1685, 1. 7. Vårum, K.M. et al., Determination <strong>of</strong> the degree <strong>of</strong> N-acetylation <strong>and</strong> the distribution <strong>of</strong> acetyl groups in partially N-deacetylated chitins (chitosans) by high-field NMR spectroscopy. Part I: High-field NMR spectroscopy <strong>of</strong> partially N-deacetylated chitins (chitosans). Carbohydr. Res., 211, 17, 1991. 8. Vårum, K.M. et al., 13 C-NMR studies <strong>of</strong> acetylation sequences in partially Ndeacetylated chitins (chitosans). Part II: High-field NMR spectroscopy <strong>of</strong> partially N-deacetylated chitins (chitosans). Carbohydr. Res., 217, 19, 1991. 9. Terbojevich, M. et al., Chitosan: chain rigidity <strong>and</strong> mesophase formation, Carbohydr. Res., 209, 251, 1991. 10. Terbojevich, M. et al., Chitosans from Euphasia superba. Part 1: Solution properties, Carbohydr. Polym., 18, 35, 1992. 11. Anthonsen, M.W. et al., Aggregates in acidic solutions <strong>of</strong> chitosans detected by static laser light scattering, Carbohydr. Polym., 25, 13, 1994. 12. Amiji, M.M., Pyrene fluorescence study <strong>of</strong> chitosan self-association in aqueous solutions, Carbohydr. Polym., 26, 211, 1995. 13. Ottøy, M.H. et al., Preparative <strong>and</strong> analytical size-exclusion chromatography <strong>of</strong> chitosans, Carbohyd. Polym., 31, 253, 1996. 14. Koide, S.S., Chitin-chitosan: properties, benefits <strong>and</strong> risks, Nutr. Res., 18, 1091, 1998. 15. Ormrod, D.J., Holmes, C.C., <strong>and</strong> Miller, T.E., Dietary chitosan inhibits hypercholesterolaemia <strong>and</strong> atherogenesis in the apolipoprotein E: deficient mouse model at atherosclerosis, Atherosclerosis, 138, 329, 1998. 16. Ernst, E. <strong>and</strong> Pittler, M.H., Chitosan as a treatment for body weight reduction? A meta-analysis, Perfusion, 11, 461, 1998. 17. Rhazi, M. et al., Contribution to the study <strong>of</strong> the complexation <strong>of</strong> copper by chitosan <strong>and</strong> oligomers, Polymer, 43, 1267, 2002. 18. Vold, I.M.N,, Vårum, K.M., Guibal, E., <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Binding <strong>of</strong> ions to chitosan: selectivity studies, submitted, Carbohydrate Polymers, 2003.
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC 19. Vårum, K.M., Ottøy, M.H., <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Water-solubility <strong>of</strong> partially Nacetylated chitosans as a function <strong>of</strong> pH: effect <strong>of</strong> chemical composition <strong>and</strong> depolymerization, Carbohydr. Polym., 25, 65, 1994. 20. Domard, A., pH <strong>and</strong> CD measurements on a fully deacetylated chitosan: application to copper(II)-polymer interactions, Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 9, 98, 1987. 21. Rinaudo, M. <strong>and</strong> Domard, A., Solution properties <strong>of</strong> chitosan, in Chitin <strong>and</strong> Chitosan, Skjåk-Bræk G., Anthonsen T., <strong>and</strong> S<strong>and</strong>ford P., Eds., Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1989, 71. 22. Anthonsen, M.W. <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Hydrogen ion titration <strong>of</strong> chitosan with varying degrees <strong>of</strong> N-acetylation by monitoring induced 1 H-NMR chemical shifts, Carbohydr. Polym., 26, 303, 1995. 23. Sorlier, P. et al., Relation between the degree <strong>of</strong> acetylation <strong>and</strong> the electrostatic properties <strong>of</strong> chitin <strong>and</strong> chitosan, Biomacromolecules, 2, 765, 2001. 24. Str<strong>and</strong>, S.P. et al., Electrophoretic light scattering studies <strong>of</strong> chitosans with different degrees <strong>of</strong> N-acetylation, Biomacromolecules, 2, 1310, 2001. 25. Vårum, K.M., Ottøy, M.H., <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Acid hydrolysis <strong>of</strong> chitosans, Carbohydr. Polym., 46, 89, 2001. 26. Vårum, K.M., unpublished results, 1996. 27. Holme, H.K. et al., Thermal depolymerization <strong>of</strong> chitosan chloride, Carbohydr. Polym., 46, 287, 2001. 28. Berger, L.R. <strong>and</strong> Weiser, R.S., The glucosaminidase activity <strong>of</strong> egg-white lysozyme, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 26, 517, 1957. 29. Amano, K.I. <strong>and</strong> Ito, E., The action <strong>of</strong> lysozyme on partially deacetylated chitin, Eur. J. Biochem., 85, 97, 1978. 30. Nordtveit, R. J., Vårum, K.M., <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Degradation <strong>of</strong> fully water-soluble, partially N-acetylated chitosans with lysozyme, Carbohydr. Polym., 23, 253, 1994. 31. Nordtveit, R.J., Vårum, K.M., <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Degradation <strong>of</strong> partially N-acetylated chitosans with hen egg white <strong>and</strong> human lysozyme, Carbohydr. Polym., 29, 163, 1996. 32. Stokke, B.T. et al., Sequence specificities for lysozyme depolymerization <strong>of</strong> partially N-acetylated chitosans. Can. J. Chem., 73, 1972, 1995. 33. Vårum, K.M. et al., Determination <strong>of</strong> enzymatic hydrolysis specificity <strong>of</strong> partially N-acetylated chitosans. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1291, 5, 1996. 34. Kristiansen, A., Vårum, K.M., <strong>and</strong> Grasdalen, H. Competitive binding <strong>of</strong> highly de- N-acetylated chitosans <strong>and</strong> N-N'-diacetylchitobiose to lysozyme from chicken egg white studied by 1 H NMR spectroscopy. Carbohydr. Res., 289, 143, 1996. 35. Kristiansen, A., Vårum, K.M., <strong>and</strong> Grasdalen, H., Interactions between highly de-Nacetylated chitosans <strong>and</strong> lysozyme from chicken egg white studied by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy, Eur. J. Biochem., 251, 335, 1998. 36. Sasaki, C., Kristiansen, A., Fukamizo, T., <strong>and</strong> Vårum, K.M., Fractionation <strong>of</strong> chitosan, submitted, Biomacromolecules, 2003. 37. Labuza, T.P. <strong>and</strong> Breene, W.M., Applications <strong>of</strong> ‘active packaging’ for improvement <strong>of</strong> shelf-life <strong>and</strong> nutritional quality <strong>of</strong> fresh <strong>and</strong> extended shelf-life foods, J. <strong>Food</strong> Proc. Preserv., 13, 1, 1989. 38. Roller, S, The antimicrobial action <strong>of</strong> chitosan: laboratory curiosity or novel food preservative? in Advances in Chitin Sciences, Vårum, K.M., Domard, A., <strong>and</strong> Smidsrød, O., Eds., NTNU Trondheim, Trondheim, 6, 43, 2003. 39. Hosokawa, J. et al., Reaction between chitosan <strong>and</strong> cellulose on biodegradable composite film formation, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30, 788, 1991. 40. Uragami, T. Preparation <strong>and</strong> characteristics <strong>of</strong> chitosan membranes. In Chitin H<strong>and</strong>book, Muzzarelli, R.A.A. <strong>and</strong> Peter, M.G., Eds., 1997, 451.
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© 2004 by CRC Press LLC Chemical a
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© 2004 by CRC Press LLC Chemical a
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© 2004 by CRC Press LLC Preface In
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© 2004 by CRC Press LLC Editor Pio
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1 CONTENTS © 2004 by CRC Press LLC
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FIGURE 1.3 Conversion of open-chain
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