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REDD projects in particular on the rights of local and indigenous communities (Peskett et al. 2008),
although the literature on PES and carbon projects shows that in a wide variety of cases, the rights and
land tenure security of smallholders were consolidated or improved (Bond et al. 2009). 15
However, this
does not preclude the possibility of grievances or conflict over land tenure and carbon rights at different
geographic and political scales (Peskett et al. 2008). Standards like the CCB that demand clear and
uncontested carbon rights should lead to greater land tenure and carbon rights security in a way that is
analogous to the effect of PES schemes on tenure security (CCBA 2008; Plan Vivo Foundation 2008;
Brown et al. 2008).
It has also been noted that if REDD+ mechanisms confer greater economic value to forests, there are
heightened incentives for interest groups (including governments) to deny or overlook the local tenure
and forest use rights (Brown et al. 2008). Likewise, new carbon benefits may provoke increased land
speculation or in-migration, thus creating loss of assets and conditions for increased competition and
social conflict “within and between communities” (Peskett et al. 2008, 43). As Jindal (2010) notes, forest
use is dynamic and frequently fraught with competing claims, and the needs of new migrants can place
new pressure on forests and community resources which cannot be solved with carbon payments alone.
Whereas REDD projects with strict restrictions may exacerbate contests over access to and control of
natural resources, carbon projects that include alternative livelihood activities or multiple-use forest
management are more likely to ensure or increase community access to forests and help resolve
outstanding problems with undefined land tenure or tenure conflicts (Smith & Scherr 2002).
Human Capital
Carbon projects typically contribute to the development of knowledge, skills, and capacity of individuals
through training and on-the-job learning in forest management, agroforestry, sustainable agriculture,
business administration, negotiations, and project management (Grieg-Gran et al. 2005). While skill and
capacity building is commonly cited as a benefit, there is little evidence of the long-term impact of
capacity building activities, for instance whether new knowledge and skills are gainfully applied in
practice (Tacconi et al. 2009). As in the case of social capital, improved human skills and capacities can
facilitate longer-term secondary outcomes and impacts in terms of economic productivity and
sustainable resource use.
15 Some projects have facilitated formal recognition of land tenure (e.g. titling). Smallholders in Costa Rica saw
their land tenure security improve as neighbors and potential squatters perceived that the land enrolled in PES
schemes was being utilized. Thus, PES schemes allowed land to be kept as forest without being considered “idle”
(Pagiola et al. 2004).
Social Impact Assessment of Land-Based Carbon Projects (1.0) – Part II | 85