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NEUROTRANSMITTERS IN PLATYHELMINTHS 385 organisms like C. elegans to provide an added knowledge base. A further difficulty relating to the study of neurotransmitters in the study of flatworms is a greater diversity in the detailed neuronal arrangements of the different flatworms. For these reasons we know less about the structure and function of cestodes and trematodes and consequently less about the neurotransmitters of these parasites. Indeed, no single candidate that meets the classical criteria for inclusion as a neurotransmitter in flatworms has been identified. As with nematodes, we will consider first the organization of the nervous systems of the trematodes and cestodes. The structure of the nervous system of trematodes and cestodes The flatworm nervous system can be thought of as a melding of a complex central nervous system with a peripheral system of more primitive nerve nets, or plexuses. The primary features of the central nervous system are a bilobed anterior ganglion and two corresponding ‘main’ longitudinal nerve cords (Figure 15.19). Although a variable number of anteriorto-posterior nerve tracts can be present, there is most often a pair of predominant, or ‘main’ nerve cords. As the main nerve cords progress posteriorly, they are connected by a series of commissures, creating a ladder-like ‘orthogonal’ structure. The peripheral nervous system is composed of a number of nerve net-like plexuses, each a flat meshwork of nerve fibers confined to a limited area in the animal. Subepithelial, sub-muscular and intra-epithelial plexuses are present, as well as distinct plexuses associated with the suckers, the gut, the pharynx, and the reproductive structures. The cytology of the nervous system is consistent with this depiction of a complex brain joined to more primitive peripheral nerve nets, as the peripheral nervous system consists exclusively of multi- and bi-polar cells which are thought to be more ancient, while the central nervous system ganglia often feature more specialized unipolar cells. The body structure of flatworms is without celomic cavities and does not contain a circulatory system, such as blood vessels or lymphatics. The distribution of regulatory hormones that stimulate growth and generalized tissue responses is presumed to occur via the nervous system. The nervous system therefore serves a neurosecretory function as well as the role of direct and more rapid control of tissue responses. It is remarkable how little is actually known about the function of the nervous system in flatworms. The worms themselves are small and the individual cells are quite small and tightly packed, making rare any flatworm preparations where one can study the nervous system directly. Further, in the case of parasitic worms, the observation of in situ behavior is difficult at best, and the effects of isolation of the parasites from their hosts is largely undefined. Consequently, there are very few data elucidating how flatworm nervous systems function, or the role of the nervous system in various physiological processes or behaviors. Largely unknown are relationships between the central and peripheral nervous systems, and their relative roles in controlling various aspects of behavior. Free-living flatworms are capable of coordinated locomotion and feeding responses in the absence of CNS input, demonstrating that much of the neural control of basic flatworm behavior occurs in the peripheral plexuses. Similarly, in a number of parasitic flatworms, removal or damage to the central nervous system has little observable effect on the worms. Most of what is known about the roles of putative neurotransmitters in flatworms is focused on the somatic BIOCHEMISTRY AND CELL BIOLOGY: HELMINTHS
386 NEUROTRANSMITTERS Cephalic ganglion Neuron Oral opening Pharyngeal muscle Pharyngeal nerve ring Transverse commissure Lateral nerve cord Ventral/dorsal nerve cord FIGURE 15.19 Diagram of the main features of the nervous system of trematodes and cestodes. BIOCHEMISTRY AND CELL BIOLOGY: HELMINTHS
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Molecular Medical Parasitology
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Molecular Medical Parasitology Edit
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Contents List of contributors Prefa
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List of contributors Mark Blaxter,
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ix Richard. J.
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Preface Parasitology was born as th
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S E C T I O N I MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
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C H A P T E R 1 Parasite genomics M
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TABLE 1.1 Parasite genomes: genome
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 7 differen
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 9 TABLE 1.
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 11 called
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 13 200 000
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BIOINFORMATICS AND THE ANALYSIS OF
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THE POST-GENOMICS ERA, AND THE OTHE
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THE PARASITES AND THEIR GENOMES 19
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FURTHER READING 27 treated with a d
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C H A P T E R 2 RNA processing in p
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TRANS-SPLICING 31 cis trans Exon 1
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TRANS-SPLICING 33 snRNPs (small nuc
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TRANS-SPLICING 35 trans cis U2AF35
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RNA EDITING 37 P AAAA... AAAA... AA
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RNA EDITING 39 entire transcript re
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RNA EDITING 41 5 Editing block C Ed
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RNA EDITING 43 microscopy) approach
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FURTHER READING 45 Nilsen, T.W. (19
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C H A P T E R 3 Transcription Arthu
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UNUSUAL MODES OF TRANSCRIPTION IN T
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CLASS I TRANSCRIPTION IN TRYPANOSOM
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CLASS II TRANSCRIPTION OF PROTEIN C
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SL RNA AND U snRNA GENE TRANSCRIPTI
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FURTHER READING 65 and switching in
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C H A P T E R 4 Post-transcriptiona
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POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION IN
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FURTHER READING 87 inhibition, it m
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C H A P T E R 5 Antigenic variation
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ANTIGENIC VARIATION AT THE STRUCTUR
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ANTIGENIC VARIATION AT THE STRUCTUR
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VSG Signal sequence Amino-terminal
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GENETICS OF ANTIGENIC VARIATION 97
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IMMUNE RESPONSES TO TRYPANOSOME INF
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INNATE RESISTANCE, HUMAN SUSCEPTIBI
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ANTIGENIC VARIATION IN MALARIA 107
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FURTHER READING 109 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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C H A P T E R 6 Genetic and genomic
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‘FORWARD’ VS. ‘REVERSE’ GEN
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EXAMPLES OF ‘FORWARD’ GENETIC A
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EXAMPLES OF ‘FORWARD’ GENETIC A
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REVERSE GENETICS AND LEISHMANIA VIR
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VALIDATION OF CANDIDATE VIRULENCE G
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S E C T I O N II BIOCHEMISTRY AND C
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C H A P T E R 7 Energy metabolism P
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SUBCELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF AMITOCH
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CELL MEMBRANE Fructose [b] Glucose
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STEPS OF AMITOCHONDRIATE CORE METAB
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ENZYMATIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMITO
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ACTION OF NITROIMIDAZOLE DRUGS 135
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ENVOI 137 unambiguously reflect the
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FURTHER READING 139 Saavedra-Lira,
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THE EMBDEN-MEYERHOF-PARNAS (EMP) PA
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WHY DO TRYPANOSOMATIDAE HAVE GLYCOS
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FURTHER READING 153 for use in agri
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CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 155 as a hu
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158 ENERGY METABOLISM - APICOMPLEXA
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172 PROTEIN METABOLISM PROTEINS (1)
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174 PROTEIN METABOLISM the C-termin
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176 PROTEIN METABOLISM and also, to
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178 PROTEIN METABOLISM values rangi
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180 PROTEIN METABOLISM of the plasm
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182 PROTEIN METABOLISM in vivo, in
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184 PROTEIN METABOLISM PROLINE Poly
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186 PROTEIN METABOLISM CO 2 Dec-SAM
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188 PROTEIN METABOLISM a cMDH has b
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190 PROTEIN METABOLISM Urea ARGININ
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192 PROTEIN METABOLISM been describ
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194 PROTEIN METABOLISM absence of g
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198 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES enable
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200 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES provide
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202 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES activit
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204 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES physiol
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206 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES Amitoch
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208 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES their a
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210 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES FIGURE
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214 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES protein
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220 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES in Plas
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222 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES whereas
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226 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES AF
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228 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES In
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230 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES po
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232 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES LP
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234 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES re
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236 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES sc
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A. sAP COOH [T][T](S/T)(S/T)(S/T)SS
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240 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES Cr
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242 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING protein
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244 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING FIGURE
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246 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING 212.5 2
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248 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING cycle.
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250 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING V-H -A
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252 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING domain)
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254 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING the kno
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256 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING from in
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258 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING FIGURE
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260 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING ESAG4 (
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262 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING and ind
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264 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING ATPase
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266 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING G11XG
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268 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING a diffe
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270 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING rapid l
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272 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING cells w
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274 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING PfPPJ i
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276 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING is cont
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278 PLASTIDS, MITOCHONDRIA, AND HYD
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298 HELMINTH SURFACES Important exc
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300 HELMINTH SURFACES protease inhi
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302 HELMINTH SURFACES volume, there
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304 HELMINTH SURFACES projecting si
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306 HELMINTH SURFACES schistosome t
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308 HELMINTH SURFACES re-establish
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310 HELMINTH SURFACES hepatic cells
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312 HELMINTH SURFACES lungs. Larvae
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314 HELMINTH SURFACES cuticle, whic
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316 HELMINTH SURFACES cuticle in th
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318 HELMINTH SURFACES mec-8 or sym-
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320 HELMINTH SURFACES current, when
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322 HELMINTH SURFACES The cuticle-h
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324 HELMINTH SURFACES are typically
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326 HELMINTH SURFACES or carrier pr
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328 HELMINTH SURFACES of tyrosine-b
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330 HELMINTH SURFACES blood. The ge
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332 HELMINTH SURFACES Mutations in
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Page 351 and 352: 338 HELMINTH SURFACES Blaxter, M.L.
Page 353 and 354: 340 ENERGY METABOLISM IN HELMINTHS
Page 373 and 374: 360 NEUROTRANSMITTERS CO 2 H NH 2 G
Page 375 and 376: 362 NEUROTRANSMITTERS TABLE 15.1 An
Page 377 and 378: 364 NEUROTRANSMITTERS more arms tha
Page 379 and 380: 366 NEUROTRANSMITTERS the surroundi
Page 381 and 382: 368 NEUROTRANSMITTERS proteins requ
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Page 387 and 388: 374 NEUROTRANSMITTERS sensitivity t
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Page 395 and 396: 382 NEUROTRANSMITTERS C-terminals a
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Page 401 and 402: 388 NEUROTRANSMITTERS myoexcitation
Page 403 and 404: 390 NEUROTRANSMITTERS is phosphoryl
Page 405 and 406: 392 NEUROTRANSMITTERS many other an
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Page 411 and 412: 398 DRUG RESISTANCE of some of the
Page 413 and 414: 400 DRUG RESISTANCE It is now estim
Page 415 and 416: 402 DRUG RESISTANCE is again assume
Page 417 and 418: 404 DRUG RESISTANCE An alternative
Page 419 and 420: 406 DRUG RESISTANCE clinical eviden
Page 421 and 422: 408 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.4 Fol
Page 423 and 424: 410 DRUG RESISTANCE Using similar s
Page 425 and 426: 412 DRUG RESISTANCE whether these r
Page 427 and 428: 414 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.5 Str
Page 429 and 430: 416 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.6 Try
Page 431 and 432: 418 DRUG RESISTANCE has permitted e
Page 433 and 434: 420 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.7 Dru
Page 435 and 436: 422 DRUG RESISTANCE near future. Th
Page 437 and 438: 424 DRUG RESISTANCE million new inf
Page 439 and 440: 426 DRUG RESISTANCE some 50 million
Page 441 and 442: 428 DRUG RESISTANCE pharynx, the bo
Page 443 and 444: 430 DRUG RESISTANCE efforts for glo
Page 445 and 446: 432 DRUG RESISTANCE and resistance
Page 447 and 448: 434 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS TABLE 17.1
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436 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS TABLE 17.1
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438 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS transmissi
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440 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS H 2 C H H
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442 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS parasites
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444 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS neuropsych
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446 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS of toxic f
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448 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS Future con
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450 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS Melarsopro
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452 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS prevention
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454 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS resulting
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456 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS for S. ste
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458 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS are though
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460 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS FIGURE 17.
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462 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS Marr, J.J.
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464 INDEX Aldolase, 143 Plasmodium
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466 INDEX Ascofuranone, 143 ASCUT-1
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468 INDEX Cnidarians, RNA trans-spl
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470 INDEX Entamoeba, 125 Ca 2 metab
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472 INDEX Glucose-6-phosphate dehyd
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474 INDEX Ivermectin, 398, 427, 455
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476 INDEX Maduramicin, 412 Major va
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478 INDEX Nitric oxide: neurotransm
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480 INDEX calcium-binding proteins,
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482 INDEX Pyrimidine transport, 200
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484 INDEX Succinate:rhodoquinone ox
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486 INDEX genome, 21 survey sequenc
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488 INDEX U small nuclear RNA (snRN
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