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C H A P T E R 4 Post-transcriptional regulation Christine Clayton Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie, Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany INTRODUCTION All medically important protist and helminth parasites have to adjust to a variety of physical and chemical conditions as they migrate to various locations in the body and are transmitted from one host to the next. To survive and multiply in disparate environments, the parasite must change its surface to combat adverse chemical and physical conditions and to minimize immune damage; it may build and destroy specialized organelles and structures needed for movement or invasion, and it needs to switch its metabolism to exploit the available substrates in aerobic or anaerobic environments. There are many possible stages, from gene to protein, at which gene expression can be controlled. These are illustrated in Figure 4.1. For a model eukaryote, possible control points are: 1. Transcription initiation, elongation and termination 2. Splicing patterns and efficiency 3. mRNA degradation in the nucleus 4. Polyadenylation 5. Nuclear export 6. mRNA translation 7. mRNA degradation in the cytoplasm 8. Protein folding 9. Protein modification and transport 10. Protein degradation. This chapter considers control of steps 2 to 7. Other issues were considered in Chapters 2 and 3. WHY POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION? Control of transcription initiation is essential in nearly all organisms, but there are many circumstances in which additional levels of regulation are required. In complex eukaryotes, Molecular Medical Parasitology ISBN 0–12–473346–8 67 Copyright © 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
68 POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION DNA A RNA B C D AAAAAAA Nucleus E D AAAAAAA Cytoplasm F AAAAA AAAA G Promoter Open reading frame Untranslated regions Other RNA, DNA 5 Cap structure Exonuclease PABP Translation factors F AAAAA H I J Ribosome Protein FIGURE 4.1 Options for regulation of gene expression. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
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Molecular Medical Parasitology
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Molecular Medical Parasitology Edit
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Contents List of contributors Prefa
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List of contributors Mark Blaxter,
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ix Richard. J.
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Preface Parasitology was born as th
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S E C T I O N I MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
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C H A P T E R 1 Parasite genomics M
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TABLE 1.1 Parasite genomes: genome
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 7 differen
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 9 TABLE 1.
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 11 called
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GENERATING GENOMICS DATA 13 200 000
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BIOINFORMATICS AND THE ANALYSIS OF
Page 30 and 31: THE POST-GENOMICS ERA, AND THE OTHE
Page 32 and 33: THE PARASITES AND THEIR GENOMES 19
Page 40 and 41: FURTHER READING 27 treated with a d
Page 42 and 43: C H A P T E R 2 RNA processing in p
Page 44 and 45: TRANS-SPLICING 31 cis trans Exon 1
Page 46 and 47: TRANS-SPLICING 33 snRNPs (small nuc
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Page 50 and 51: RNA EDITING 37 P AAAA... AAAA... AA
Page 52 and 53: RNA EDITING 39 entire transcript re
Page 54 and 55: RNA EDITING 41 5 Editing block C Ed
Page 56 and 57: RNA EDITING 43 microscopy) approach
Page 58 and 59: FURTHER READING 45 Nilsen, T.W. (19
Page 60 and 61: C H A P T E R 3 Transcription Arthu
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Page 102 and 103: C H A P T E R 5 Antigenic variation
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Page 108 and 109: VSG Signal sequence Amino-terminal
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Page 122 and 123: FURTHER READING 109 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Page 124 and 125: C H A P T E R 6 Genetic and genomic
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EXAMPLES OF ‘FORWARD’ GENETIC A
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REVERSE GENETICS AND LEISHMANIA VIR
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VALIDATION OF CANDIDATE VIRULENCE G
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S E C T I O N II BIOCHEMISTRY AND C
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C H A P T E R 7 Energy metabolism P
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SUBCELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF AMITOCH
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CELL MEMBRANE Fructose [b] Glucose
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STEPS OF AMITOCHONDRIATE CORE METAB
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ENZYMATIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMITO
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ACTION OF NITROIMIDAZOLE DRUGS 135
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ENVOI 137 unambiguously reflect the
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FURTHER READING 139 Saavedra-Lira,
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THE EMBDEN-MEYERHOF-PARNAS (EMP) PA
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WHY DO TRYPANOSOMATIDAE HAVE GLYCOS
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FURTHER READING 153 for use in agri
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CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 155 as a hu
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158 ENERGY METABOLISM - APICOMPLEXA
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172 PROTEIN METABOLISM PROTEINS (1)
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174 PROTEIN METABOLISM the C-termin
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176 PROTEIN METABOLISM and also, to
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178 PROTEIN METABOLISM values rangi
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180 PROTEIN METABOLISM of the plasm
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182 PROTEIN METABOLISM in vivo, in
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184 PROTEIN METABOLISM PROLINE Poly
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186 PROTEIN METABOLISM CO 2 Dec-SAM
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188 PROTEIN METABOLISM a cMDH has b
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190 PROTEIN METABOLISM Urea ARGININ
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192 PROTEIN METABOLISM been describ
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194 PROTEIN METABOLISM absence of g
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198 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES enable
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200 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES provide
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202 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES activit
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204 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES physiol
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206 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES Amitoch
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208 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES their a
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210 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES FIGURE
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214 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES protein
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220 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES in Plas
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222 PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES whereas
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226 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES AF
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228 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES In
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230 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES po
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232 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES LP
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234 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES re
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236 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES sc
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A. sAP COOH [T][T](S/T)(S/T)(S/T)SS
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240 TRYPANOSOMATID CARBOHYDRATES Cr
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242 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING protein
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244 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING FIGURE
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246 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING 212.5 2
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248 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING cycle.
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250 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING V-H -A
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252 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING domain)
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254 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING the kno
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256 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING from in
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258 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING FIGURE
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260 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING ESAG4 (
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262 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING and ind
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264 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING ATPase
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266 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING G11XG
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268 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING a diffe
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270 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING rapid l
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272 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING cells w
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274 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING PfPPJ i
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276 INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING is cont
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278 PLASTIDS, MITOCHONDRIA, AND HYD
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298 HELMINTH SURFACES Important exc
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300 HELMINTH SURFACES protease inhi
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302 HELMINTH SURFACES volume, there
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304 HELMINTH SURFACES projecting si
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306 HELMINTH SURFACES schistosome t
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308 HELMINTH SURFACES re-establish
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310 HELMINTH SURFACES hepatic cells
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312 HELMINTH SURFACES lungs. Larvae
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314 HELMINTH SURFACES cuticle, whic
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316 HELMINTH SURFACES cuticle in th
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318 HELMINTH SURFACES mec-8 or sym-
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320 HELMINTH SURFACES current, when
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322 HELMINTH SURFACES The cuticle-h
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324 HELMINTH SURFACES are typically
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326 HELMINTH SURFACES or carrier pr
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328 HELMINTH SURFACES of tyrosine-b
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330 HELMINTH SURFACES blood. The ge
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332 HELMINTH SURFACES Mutations in
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334 HELMINTH SURFACES in the hypode
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336 HELMINTH SURFACES (including H-
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338 HELMINTH SURFACES Blaxter, M.L.
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340 ENERGY METABOLISM IN HELMINTHS
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360 NEUROTRANSMITTERS CO 2 H NH 2 G
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362 NEUROTRANSMITTERS TABLE 15.1 An
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364 NEUROTRANSMITTERS more arms tha
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366 NEUROTRANSMITTERS the surroundi
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368 NEUROTRANSMITTERS proteins requ
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370 NEUROTRANSMITTERS FIGURE 15.11
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372 NEUROTRANSMITTERS FIGURE 15.13
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374 NEUROTRANSMITTERS sensitivity t
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376 NEUROTRANSMITTERS TABLE 15.3 Cl
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378 NEUROTRANSMITTERS crossed the c
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380 NEUROTRANSMITTERS have been tes
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382 NEUROTRANSMITTERS C-terminals a
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384 NEUROTRANSMITTERS Davis and Str
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386 NEUROTRANSMITTERS Cephalic gang
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388 NEUROTRANSMITTERS myoexcitation
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390 NEUROTRANSMITTERS is phosphoryl
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392 NEUROTRANSMITTERS many other an
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398 DRUG RESISTANCE of some of the
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400 DRUG RESISTANCE It is now estim
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402 DRUG RESISTANCE is again assume
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404 DRUG RESISTANCE An alternative
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406 DRUG RESISTANCE clinical eviden
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408 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.4 Fol
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410 DRUG RESISTANCE Using similar s
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412 DRUG RESISTANCE whether these r
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414 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.5 Str
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416 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.6 Try
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418 DRUG RESISTANCE has permitted e
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420 DRUG RESISTANCE FIGURE 16.7 Dru
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422 DRUG RESISTANCE near future. Th
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424 DRUG RESISTANCE million new inf
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426 DRUG RESISTANCE some 50 million
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428 DRUG RESISTANCE pharynx, the bo
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430 DRUG RESISTANCE efforts for glo
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432 DRUG RESISTANCE and resistance
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434 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS TABLE 17.1
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436 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS TABLE 17.1
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438 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS transmissi
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440 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS H 2 C H H
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442 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS parasites
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444 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS neuropsych
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446 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS of toxic f
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448 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS Future con
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450 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS Melarsopro
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452 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS prevention
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454 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS resulting
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456 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS for S. ste
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458 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS are though
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460 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS FIGURE 17.
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462 MEDICAL IMPLICATIONS Marr, J.J.
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464 INDEX Aldolase, 143 Plasmodium
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466 INDEX Ascofuranone, 143 ASCUT-1
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468 INDEX Cnidarians, RNA trans-spl
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470 INDEX Entamoeba, 125 Ca 2 metab
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472 INDEX Glucose-6-phosphate dehyd
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474 INDEX Ivermectin, 398, 427, 455
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476 INDEX Maduramicin, 412 Major va
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478 INDEX Nitric oxide: neurotransm
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480 INDEX calcium-binding proteins,
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482 INDEX Pyrimidine transport, 200
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484 INDEX Succinate:rhodoquinone ox
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486 INDEX genome, 21 survey sequenc
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488 INDEX U small nuclear RNA (snRN
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