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FURTHER READING 431<br />

analysis, which can lead to the rational design<br />

of selective inhibitors. In this ‘post-genomic’<br />

era there are already major research efforts for<br />

several of the main parasites to carry out highthroughput<br />

protein-structure determination.<br />

These structures should prove to be a fruitful<br />

source for the development of novel antiparasitic<br />

agents. Development of these drugs is<br />

unlikely to be led by the pharmaceutical industry,<br />

which usually does not invest in neglected<br />

diseases of poor countries. Nonetheless, large<br />

philanthropic organizations and public and<br />

parapublic national and international organisations<br />

could make investments to develop new<br />

anti-parasitic agents, and initiatives in that direction,<br />

although still modest in scale, are tangible.<br />

With the development of drug resistance and<br />

the limited numbers of drugs available, it is<br />

indeed necessary that such efforts be encouraged<br />

in our fight against parasitic diseases.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />

MO is a CIHR investigator and a Burroughs<br />

Wellcome Fund Scholar in molecular parasitology.<br />

Work on drug resistance in the MO lab is<br />

supported by the CIHR and the Wellcome Trust.<br />

FURTHER READING<br />

Barrett, M.P. and Fairlamb, A.H. (1999). The biochemical<br />

basis of arsenical–diamidine crossresistance<br />

in African trypanosomes. Parasitol. Today<br />

15, 136–140.<br />

Borst, P. and Ouellette, M. (1995). New mechanisms<br />

of drug resistance in parasitic protozoa. Annu.<br />

Rev. Microbiol. 49, 427–460.<br />

Bray, P.G., Mungthin, M., Ridley, R.G. and<br />

Ward, S.A. (1998). Access to hematin: the basis<br />

of chloroquine resistance. Mol. Pharmacol. 54,<br />

170–179.<br />

Carter, N.S. and Fairlamb, A.H. (1993). Arsenicalresistant<br />

trypanosomes lack an unusual adenosine<br />

<strong>trans</strong>porter. Nature 361, 173–176. [erratum in<br />

Nature (1993) 361, 374.]<br />

Cotrim, P.C., Garrity, L.K. and Beverley, S.M. (1999).<br />

Isolation of genes mediating resistance to<br />

inhibitors of nucleoside and ergosterol metabolism<br />

in Leishmania by overexpression/selection.<br />

J. Biol. Chem. 274, 37723–37730.<br />

de Koning, H.P. (2001). Transporters in African trypanosomes:<br />

role in drug action and resistance.<br />

Int. J. Parasitol. 31, 512–522.<br />

Fidock, D., Nomura, T., Talley, A. et al. (2000).<br />

Mutations in the P. falciparum digestive vacuole<br />

<strong>trans</strong>membrane protein PfCRT and evidence for<br />

their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol. Cell 6,<br />

861–871.<br />

Geerts, S. and Gryseels, B. (2000). Drug resistance in<br />

human helminths: current situation and lessons<br />

from livestock. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13, 207–222.<br />

Kohler, P. (2001). The biochemical basis of<br />

anthelmintic action and resistance. Int. J.<br />

Parasitol. 31, 336–345.<br />

Légaré, D., Richard, D., Mukhopadhyay, R. et al.<br />

(2001). The Leishmania ABC protein PGPA is<br />

an intracellular metal–thiol <strong>trans</strong>porter ATPase.<br />

J. Biol. Chem. 276, 26301–26307.<br />

Maser, P., Sutterlin, C., Kralli, A. and Kaminsky, R.<br />

(1999). A nucleoside <strong>trans</strong>porter from Trypanosoma<br />

brucei involved in drug resistance.<br />

Science 285, 242–244.<br />

Matovu, E., Seebeck, T., Enyaru, J.C. and Kaminsky, R.<br />

(2001). Drug resistance in Trypanosoma brucei<br />

spp., the causative agents of sleeping sickness<br />

in man and nagana in cattle. Microbes Infect. 3,<br />

763–770.<br />

McFadden, D.C., Camps, M. and Boothroyd, J.C.<br />

(2001). Resistance as a tool in the study of old<br />

and new drug targets in Toxoplasma. Drug Resist.<br />

Updat. 4, 79–84.<br />

Murta, S.M., Gazzinelli, R.T., Brener, Z. and<br />

Romanha, A.J. (1998). Molecular characterization<br />

of susceptible and naturally resistant strains<br />

of Trypanosoma cruzi to benznidazole and<br />

nifurtimox. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 93, 203–214.<br />

Ouellette, M. (2001). Biochemical and molecular<br />

mechanisms of drug resistance in parasites.<br />

Trop. Med. Int. Health 6, 874–882.<br />

Prichard, R. (2001). Genetic variability following<br />

selection of Haemonchus contortus with<br />

anthelmintics. Trends Parasitol. 17, 445–453.<br />

Reed, M.B., Saliba, K.J., Caruana, S.R., Kirk, K. and<br />

Cowman, A.F. (2000). Pgh1 modulates sensitivity<br />

MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

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