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FURTHER READING 431<br />
analysis, which can lead to the rational design<br />
of selective inhibitors. In this ‘post-genomic’<br />
era there are already major research efforts for<br />
several of the main parasites to carry out highthroughput<br />
protein-structure determination.<br />
These structures should prove to be a fruitful<br />
source for the development of novel antiparasitic<br />
agents. Development of these drugs is<br />
unlikely to be led by the pharmaceutical industry,<br />
which usually does not invest in neglected<br />
diseases of poor countries. Nonetheless, large<br />
philanthropic organizations and public and<br />
parapublic national and international organisations<br />
could make investments to develop new<br />
anti-parasitic agents, and initiatives in that direction,<br />
although still modest in scale, are tangible.<br />
With the development of drug resistance and<br />
the limited numbers of drugs available, it is<br />
indeed necessary that such efforts be encouraged<br />
in our fight against parasitic diseases.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
MO is a CIHR investigator and a Burroughs<br />
Wellcome Fund Scholar in molecular parasitology.<br />
Work on drug resistance in the MO lab is<br />
supported by the CIHR and the Wellcome Trust.<br />
FURTHER READING<br />
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basis of arsenical–diamidine crossresistance<br />
in African trypanosomes. Parasitol. Today<br />
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Borst, P. and Ouellette, M. (1995). New mechanisms<br />
of drug resistance in parasitic protozoa. Annu.<br />
Rev. Microbiol. 49, 427–460.<br />
Bray, P.G., Mungthin, M., Ridley, R.G. and<br />
Ward, S.A. (1998). Access to hematin: the basis<br />
of chloroquine resistance. Mol. Pharmacol. 54,<br />
170–179.<br />
Carter, N.S. and Fairlamb, A.H. (1993). Arsenicalresistant<br />
trypanosomes lack an unusual adenosine<br />
<strong>trans</strong>porter. Nature 361, 173–176. [erratum in<br />
Nature (1993) 361, 374.]<br />
Cotrim, P.C., Garrity, L.K. and Beverley, S.M. (1999).<br />
Isolation of genes mediating resistance to<br />
inhibitors of nucleoside and ergosterol metabolism<br />
in Leishmania by overexpression/selection.<br />
J. Biol. Chem. 274, 37723–37730.<br />
de Koning, H.P. (2001). Transporters in African trypanosomes:<br />
role in drug action and resistance.<br />
Int. J. Parasitol. 31, 512–522.<br />
Fidock, D., Nomura, T., Talley, A. et al. (2000).<br />
Mutations in the P. falciparum digestive vacuole<br />
<strong>trans</strong>membrane protein PfCRT and evidence for<br />
their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol. Cell 6,<br />
861–871.<br />
Geerts, S. and Gryseels, B. (2000). Drug resistance in<br />
human helminths: current situation and lessons<br />
from livestock. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13, 207–222.<br />
Kohler, P. (2001). The biochemical basis of<br />
anthelmintic action and resistance. Int. J.<br />
Parasitol. 31, 336–345.<br />
Légaré, D., Richard, D., Mukhopadhyay, R. et al.<br />
(2001). The Leishmania ABC protein PGPA is<br />
an intracellular metal–thiol <strong>trans</strong>porter ATPase.<br />
J. Biol. Chem. 276, 26301–26307.<br />
Maser, P., Sutterlin, C., Kralli, A. and Kaminsky, R.<br />
(1999). A nucleoside <strong>trans</strong>porter from Trypanosoma<br />
brucei involved in drug resistance.<br />
Science 285, 242–244.<br />
Matovu, E., Seebeck, T., Enyaru, J.C. and Kaminsky, R.<br />
(2001). Drug resistance in Trypanosoma brucei<br />
spp., the causative agents of sleeping sickness<br />
in man and nagana in cattle. Microbes Infect. 3,<br />
763–770.<br />
McFadden, D.C., Camps, M. and Boothroyd, J.C.<br />
(2001). Resistance as a tool in the study of old<br />
and new drug targets in Toxoplasma. Drug Resist.<br />
Updat. 4, 79–84.<br />
Murta, S.M., Gazzinelli, R.T., Brener, Z. and<br />
Romanha, A.J. (1998). Molecular characterization<br />
of susceptible and naturally resistant strains<br />
of Trypanosoma cruzi to benznidazole and<br />
nifurtimox. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 93, 203–214.<br />
Ouellette, M. (2001). Biochemical and molecular<br />
mechanisms of drug resistance in parasites.<br />
Trop. Med. Int. Health 6, 874–882.<br />
Prichard, R. (2001). Genetic variability following<br />
selection of Haemonchus contortus with<br />
anthelmintics. Trends Parasitol. 17, 445–453.<br />
Reed, M.B., Saliba, K.J., Caruana, S.R., Kirk, K. and<br />
Cowman, A.F. (2000). Pgh1 modulates sensitivity<br />
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS