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28 How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering al Qa’ida deeply concerned that U.S. assistance abroad frequently strengthened the recipient government’s capacity for repression. 59 Congress was also concerned about the role of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which trained foreign police in countersubversion, counterguerrilla, and intelligence-gathering techniques. 60 Consequently, Congress adopted §660 of the Foreign Assistance Act in 1974. 61 It prohibited the United States from providing internal security assistance to foreign governments and specifically stated that the U.S. government could not provide training or advice, or provide any financial support, for police, prisons, or other law enforcement forces for any foreign government or any program of internal intelligence or surveillance on behalf of any foreign government within the United States or abroad. 62 Although the U.S. government still provided some internal security training during the late 1970s and 1980s through exemptions and waiver provisions, §660 largely halted U.S. involvement in this area. One notable exception was the International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP) in the U.S. Depart- We Knew: Americans and the Cold War, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. 59 Michael McClintock, The American Connection, London: Zed Books, 1985; Martha Knisely Huggins, Political Policing: The United States and Latin America, Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998. 60 John F. Kennedy, “Special Message to the Congress on the Defense Budget,” March 28, 1961, in John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy; Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President, January 20 to December 31, 1961, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962a, p. 236. 61 Public Law 93-669, Foreign Assistance Act Amendments of 1974. 62 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and U.S. House of Representatives Committee on International Relations, Legislation on Foreign Relations Through 2000, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2001, pp. 338–339; Robert Perito, The American Experience with Police in Peace Operations, Clementsport, N.S.: Canadian Peacekeeping Press, 2002, pp. 18–19.
How Terrorist Groups End 29 ment of Justice, which was established in 1986 to help restructure the law-enforcement system of countries in transition. 63 The end of the Cold War and the increasing tempo of U.S. stability operations after 1989 rendered the 1974 legislation largely obsolete. Section 660 still exists. But U.S. government agencies secured waivers and provided police and other internal security assistance to a range of democratic and nondemocratic regimes. U.S. assistance to foreign police for counterterrorism purposes was limited but did include several types: providing arms and other equipment; training and mentoring security forces; and building infrastructure, such as prisons and police stations. This assistance was geared toward promoting U.S. security and interests abroad by improving foreign governments’ ability to deal with common security threats, especially terrorism. As the Foreign Assistance Act noted, counterterrorism assistance is critical “to enhance the ability of . . . law enforcement personnel to deter terrorists and terrorist groups from engaging in international terrorist acts such as bombing, kidnapping, assassination, hostage taking, and hijacking.” 64 U.S. policymakers believed that strengthening the capabilities of foreign governments has a feedback loop: Improving foreign governments’ ability to deal with security threats, such as terrorism, increases U.S. security. There are numerous examples of policing successes against terrorist groups. Stepped-up surveillance by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Quebec Provincial Police (QPP) led to a series of arrests and convictions of Quebec terrorist groups in the 1970s, especially the Liberation Front of Quebec (Front de Libération du Québec, or FLQ). As one study concluded, Stepped-up surveillance by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Security Service (RCMPSS) and the Quebec Provincial Police (QPP), including the use of informants, led to arrests and convic- 63 Charles T. Call, “Institutional Learning Within ICITAP,” in Robert B. Oakley, Michael J. Dziedzic, and Eliot M. Goldberg, eds., Policing the New World Disorder: Peace Operations and Public Security, Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press, 1998, pp. 315–364. 64 P.L. 93-669, Chapter 8, Part 2.
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THE ARTS CHILD POLICY CIVIL JUSTICE
Page 3 and 4: HOW TERRORIST GROUPS END Lessons fo
Page 5 and 6: About the Authors Seth G. Jones is
Page 7: Preface By analyzing 648 groups tha
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CHAPTER FIVE Military Force and al
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Military Force and al Qa’ida in I
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APPENDIX A End-of-Terror Data Set T
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Table A.1—Continued Organization
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APPENDIX B Al Qa’ida Attacks, 199
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Al Qa’ida Attacks, 1994-2007 189
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APPENDIX C Regression Analysis Usin
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Regression Analysis 199 Table C.1 P
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References 9/11 Commission—see Na
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References 207 Gompert, David C., J
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References 219 United Nations Depar
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