Oil and gas production handbook An introduction to oil ... - ABB Group

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9.1.4 Shale gas and coal bed methane Oil shales are also becoming an important source of shale gas, and some analysts expect that this source of natural gas can supply half of the gas consumption in the US and Canada by 2020. Shales normally do not have the required matrix permeability for the gas to be produced, and in the past, gas could be produced only from source rock with significant natural fracturing. The natural gas comes from decomposition of shale oil and is held in natural fractures, some in pore spaces, and some adsorbed onto organic material. Recently, there have been strong advances in extraction technology, which uses a combination of horizontal wells and hydraulic fracturing in a way that maintains fracturing (see chapter 3.7) and flow of gas much better than before. Even so, production typically requires a high number of wells with limited lifetimes, so continuous drilling of new wells is required to maintain output. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, and emissions from leaking capped wells and fractures is a potential problem due to the large number of wells. Figure 37. Schematic geology of natural gas resources This form of production is different from oil shale gas, which is produced by pyrolysis (heating and hydrocarbon decomposition) of mined oil shale. Coal deposits also contain large amounts of methane, referred to as coal bed methane. The methane is absorbed in the coal matrix and requires extraction techniques similar to shale gas. Often the coal bed is flooded, so 130
after well completion and fracturing, the coal seam (layer of coal) must be dewatered. A common solution is to extract water through the well tubing. Generally, the water needs to be pumped out and therefore control is needed to prevent the gas from entering the water in the tubing (the well becomes gassy). This reduces the pressure and allows methane to desorb from the matrix and be produced through the casing. 9.1.5 Coal, gas to liquids and synthetic fuel Coal is similar in origin to oil shales, but typically formed from the anaerobic decay of peat swamps and relatively free from non-organic sediment deposits, reformed by heat and pressure. To form a 1-meter thick coal layer, as much as 30 meters of peat was originally required. Coal can vary from relatively pure carbon to carbon soaked with hydrocarbons, sulfur, etc. (For synthesis gas, see also chapter 7.3.) It has been known for decades that synthetic diesel could be created from coal. This is done, first by creating water gas as synthesis gas by passing steam over red-hot coke. The reaction is endothermic and requires heating: C + H 2 O → H 2 + CO More hydrogen is produced in the water gas shift reaction: CO + H 2 O → H 2 + CO 2 Often two stages are used: a high temperature shift (HTS) at 350 °C with catalyst iron oxide promoted with chromium oxide, and a low temperature shift (LTS) at 190–210 °C with catalyst copper on a mixed support composed of zinc oxide and aluminum oxide. These synthesis gases are then used in the Fischer–Tropsch process: (2n+1)H 2 + nCO → C n H (2n+2) + nH 2 O This process runs at a pressure of 2-4 MPa. With iron catalyst a high temperature process at 350 °C will yield a diesel fuel quite similar to normal diesel with an average carbon number of 12, and a certain content of unwanted aromatics. The low temperature process uses a cobalt catalyst and a temperature of 200 °C and yields a pure synthetic diesel composed of alkanes with a carbon number of 10-15 and an average carbon number of 12. 131
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Håvard Devold Oil and gas producti
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PREFACE This handbook has been comp
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4.1.1 Pipelines and risers ........
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9.1.7 Biofuels ....................
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arrels per day in October, 1861, an
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2 Facilities and processes The oil
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Although there is a wide range of s
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day GOSP. Product is sent from the
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FPSO: Floating Production, Storage
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water depths from 300 up to 3,000 m
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For gas gathering systems, it is co
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2.3.5 Utility systems Utility syste
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for the operation of the pipeline.
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Photo: DOW, Terneusen, Netherlands
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particular crude is merely a measur
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3.1.3 Condensates While the ethane,
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each different parts of the structu
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around 4.5 MPa. During production,
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well from caving in and to help in
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well to add multiple completions to
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Variable flow choke valve. The vari
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motor drives a reciprocating beam,
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The cycle starts with the plunger f
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4 The upstream oil and gas process
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The desired setting for each well a
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Emergency valves (EVs) are sectioni
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The environmental regulations in mo
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Heat exchangers of various forms ar
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• Reciprocating compressors, whic
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Figure 8. Compressor state diagram
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4.4 Oil and gas storage, metering a
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Gas metering is less accurate than
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5 Midstream facilities Raw natural
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o o Acid gas has a high content of
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5.3.1 Acid gas removal Acid gases s
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5.3.4 Nitrogen rejection Excessive
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5.4 Pipelines Pipeline installation
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pressure-reducing turbines (or brak
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LNG carriers are used when the tran
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Typical LNG train power use is abou
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The dual cycle mixed refrigerant (D
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6 Refining Up to the early 1970s, c
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Page 93 and 94: 2 H 2 S + O 2 → S 2 + 2 H 2 O The
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Page 97 and 98: products. Almost all aromatics come
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Page 119 and 120: system by means of the available co
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Page 133 and 134: · Mandatory radio system · Securi
Page 135 and 136: 9 Unconventional and conventional r
Page 137: eleases bitumen from the oil sand,
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Page 149 and 150: 10 Units Some common units used in
Page 151 and 152: 11 Glossary of terms and acronyms A
Page 153 and 154: MEG MEK MMA MP MPA MPG / USP MSDS M
Page 155 and 156: 12 References Web online sources an
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