Oil and gas production handbook An introduction to oil ... - ABB Group

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5.5.2 Storage, transport and regasification Storage at the terminals and on LNG carriers is done in cryogenic tanks at atmospheric pressure or slightly above, up to 125 kPa. The tanks are insulated, but will not keep LNG cold enough to avoid evaporation. Heat leakage will heat and boil off the LNG. Therefore LNG is stored as a boiling cryogen, which means that the liquid is stored at its boiling point for its storage pressure (atmospheric pressure), i.e., about -162 ºC. As the vapor boils off, heat of vaporization is absorbed from and cools the remaining liquid. The effect is called auto-refrigeration. With efficient insulation, only a relatively small amount of boil-off is necessary to maintain temperature. Boiloff gas from land-based LNG storage tanks is compressed and fed to natural gas pipeline networks. On LNG carriers, the boil-off gas can be used for fuel. Gas return line LNG discharge line Compressor Sea water T ambient (10°C ÷ 25°C) Vaporizer LNG ship Recondenser Gas pipelines Discharge sea water LNG tank (5°C ÷ 20°C) Figure 18. LNG terminal process overview At the receiving terminal, LNG is stored in local cryogenic tanks. It is regasified to ambient temperature on demand, commonly in a sea water heat exchanger, and then injected into the gas pipeline system. Cove point LNG terminal 76
6 Refining Up to the early 1970s, crude oil prices were kept reasonably stable by major international oil companies and industrialized nations. Less value was created in the upstream production operations and relatively more profits were generated in refining and distribution operations. With the 1973 oil crisis and rising crude oil prices, more of the value was created upstream. Now, the success of a modern refinery depends more on economies of scale and the ability to process a wide range of crudes into the maximum quantity of high value fuels and feedstock. A refinery that is able to handle multiple types from heavy to light crude is said to have to have a large swing. Trade specifications such as ”West Texas Intermediate” (WTI) API 38.3°, “Brent Blend” API 38.3°, “Heavy Arab Crude” API 27.7° or “Grane” API 18.7° are examples of such crudes. Medium light crudes can be used directly in early engines and burners. Modern consumers, such as gas and diesel engines, aviation turbojet engines and ship bunkers need fuels manufactured to precise specifications. This includes removing contaminants and pollutants, such as sulfur. 6.1 Fractional distillation The basic refinery uses fractional distillation. Incoming crude is heated to its boiling point. It then enters the distillation column, which separates the different fractions. The column is of the reflux type, where colder condensed fluids running down are reheated by rising vapors that in turn condense. This produces clear thermal zones where the different products can be drained. NOTE: The schematic on the following page is simplified. Both continuous and vacuum distillation is used in separate columns to avoid heating the raw crude to more than 370 °C. Overheating would cause thermal cracking and excessive coke that may also plug pipes and vessels. Also a sidecut stripper is used, in addition to the main column, to further improve separation. Sidecut is another name for the fractions emerging from the side (rather than top and bottom) of the main column, i.e., naphtha, gasoline, kerosene and diesel. The fractions are a mix of alkanes and aromatics and other hydrocarbons, so there is not a linear and uniformly rising relationship between carbon number and boiling point and density, although there is a rough fit. Even so, this means that each fraction contains a distribution of carbon numbers and hydrocarbons. 77
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Håvard Devold Oil and gas producti
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PREFACE This handbook has been comp
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4.1.1 Pipelines and risers ........
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9.1.7 Biofuels ....................
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arrels per day in October, 1861, an
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2 Facilities and processes The oil
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Although there is a wide range of s
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day GOSP. Product is sent from the
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FPSO: Floating Production, Storage
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water depths from 300 up to 3,000 m
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For gas gathering systems, it is co
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2.3.5 Utility systems Utility syste
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for the operation of the pipeline.
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Photo: DOW, Terneusen, Netherlands
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particular crude is merely a measur
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3.1.3 Condensates While the ethane,
Page 34 and 35: each different parts of the structu
Page 36 and 37: around 4.5 MPa. During production,
Page 38 and 39: well from caving in and to help in
Page 40 and 41: well to add multiple completions to
Page 42 and 43: Variable flow choke valve. The vari
Page 44 and 45: motor drives a reciprocating beam,
Page 46 and 47: The cycle starts with the plunger f
Page 48: 4 The upstream oil and gas process
Page 51 and 52: The desired setting for each well a
Page 53 and 54: Emergency valves (EVs) are sectioni
Page 55 and 56: The environmental regulations in mo
Page 57 and 58: Heat exchangers of various forms ar
Page 59 and 60: • Reciprocating compressors, whic
Page 61 and 62: Figure 8. Compressor state diagram
Page 63 and 64: 4.4 Oil and gas storage, metering a
Page 65 and 66: Gas metering is less accurate than
Page 67 and 68: 5 Midstream facilities Raw natural
Page 69 and 70: o o Acid gas has a high content of
Page 71 and 72: 5.3.1 Acid gas removal Acid gases s
Page 73 and 74: 5.3.4 Nitrogen rejection Excessive
Page 75 and 76: 5.4 Pipelines Pipeline installation
Page 77 and 78: pressure-reducing turbines (or brak
Page 79 and 80: LNG carriers are used when the tran
Page 81 and 82: Typical LNG train power use is abou
Page 83: The dual cycle mixed refrigerant (D
Page 87 and 88: 3 and 4 and boiling points -42 °C
Page 89 and 90: Figure 20. Refinery process flow di
Page 91 and 92: Distillate hydrotreater units desul
Page 93 and 94: 2 H 2 S + O 2 → S 2 + 2 H 2 O The
Page 95 and 96: 7 Petrochemical Petrochemicals are
Page 97 and 98: products. Almost all aromatics come
Page 99 and 100: formed into molded products. Nylon
Page 101 and 102: chains with only two, three or four
Page 103 and 104: appliance housings, dishwasher-proo
Page 105 and 106: ubber is a vinyl polymer, and is ve
Page 107 and 108: terephthalic acid (PTA) as the pref
Page 109 and 110: • Field instrumentation: sensors
Page 111 and 112: • Optimization of various process
Page 113 and 114: to-end safety integrity level. The
Page 115 and 116: PSD and can be handled with less st
Page 117 and 118: P&ID 109
Page 119 and 120: system by means of the available co
Page 121 and 122: • Flowline control to stabilize m
Page 123 and 124: numerical or computed variables are
Page 125 and 126: training facilities are often conne
Page 127 and 128: Therefore use of large variable spe
Page 129 and 130: desalination of seawater though dis
Page 131 and 132: Polyelectrolyte Methanol (MEG) TEG
Page 133 and 134: · Mandatory radio system · Securi
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9 Unconventional and conventional r
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eleases bitumen from the oil sand,
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after well completion and fracturin
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gas - combined. However, research i
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9.1.8 Hydrogen Although not a hydro
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and gas, the remainder is coal, pea
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The main contribution to sea level
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10 Units Some common units used in
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11 Glossary of terms and acronyms A
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MEG MEK MMA MP MPA MPG / USP MSDS M
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12 References Web online sources an
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cumene ............................
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polybutadiene .....................
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