Shrimp Farming and the Environment - Library

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26 workdays per hectare, and an extensive shrimp farm about 45 workdays per hectare per cycle (Clay1996).These findings conflict with other reports on Asia, which show that in general, semi-intensive andintensive shrimp farming require more labor per unit area of land than competing activities, includingrice farming. Furthermore, it generates far higher wages for labor (Hambrey 1993; Hambrey 1996a).Funge-Smith & Stewart (1996) report labor requirements in southern Thailand of between 2.5 and 4persons per hectare. NACA undertook a comprehensive ADB-funded survey of shrimp farming in Asiain 1994; the survey included 869 intensive farms, 1,017 semi-intensive farms, and 2,944 extensivefarms across 13 countries in South and Southeast Asia and China (ADB/NACA 1995). Labor useacross types of farms (extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive) was highly variable in this report,probably reflecting the inconsistent use and recording of family labor. Total labor use on intensivefarms ranged from 2.3 person months/ha/yr (Korea), to 39 (Sri Lanka), with an average of 19 (Figure9). For semi-intensive farms the figures ranged from 2.4 in China to 117 in Vietnam, with an averageof 31. Extensive farms used between 1.5 person months/ha/year (Philippines) and 17.1 (Sri Lanka) withan average of 6.4. These figures are based on labor use rather than labor requirements and are probablyrather high, reflecting the inefficient use (or inaccurate recording) of family labor, and the very smallsize (and therefore low labor productivity) of many of the enterprises in Asia.Figure 9. Labor use on shrimp farms in Asia(data from NACA 1995)140120100intensivesemi-intensiveextensivemonths/year806040-20BangladeshCambodiaChinaIndonesia Malaysia Philippines Taiwan VietnamIndia Korea Myanmar Sri Lanka ThailandSource: NACA 1995.Experience from large numbers of intensive shrimp farms in Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnamsuggests that intensive farms (of more than 1 ha) generally require between 6 and 18 person monthstotal labor per hectare per year. Smaller farms may require higher rates. Whatever figure is actuallyused, semi-intensive and intensive shrimp farming may require at least as much labor as rice farming(which typically requires 6-12 months/ha) or other feasible alternatives on poor, usually brackishcoastal soils. All forms of shrimp culture also require significant labor during construction.Figure 9 also shows that more intensive farming requires more labor than extensive farming, althoughIndia provides an exception to this general rule. This reflects the need to feed the shrimp often, as wellas careful water quality management and other husbandry practices required on intensive farms.Harvesting and pond preparation in more intensive ponds is also a labor-intensive activity. Extensive43
shrimp farming, on the other hand, is largely passive, with labor required merely to control waterexchange and entry of seed at appropriate stages of the tide, with only occasional feeding. Harvesting istypically done by capture in traps.Redistribution of wealthPower relationships and social changeAs has been seen in many areas of the world, the social structure of a local community may changewhen aquaculture is developed. Many poor farmers have become rich, large fortunes have been madein some cases, and political and financial relationships and relative power have shifted. Suchdevelopments are not necessarily harmful or unnatural; they have occurred in all societies throughhistory. However, if such changes are very rapid and substantial, the local community may havedifficulty in adapting, and, in extreme cases, social disorder may result. Disorder is most likely to takeplace when land becomes concentrated in a few hands, especially if these landowners are non-localspeculators.Since local elites generally have more influence and greater access to credit, subsidies, and permits,they are better able to take advantage of new opportunities than poorer sectors of society, and to furtherconsolidate their positions of power and wealth. Thus, the gap between the elite and the generalpopulation tends to widen rather than narrow (Adger, Kelly, Ninh & Thanh 1998). Whether or not thisis a necessary or acceptable stage in the development process is a matter of debate, but it shouldcertainly be addressed as a policy issue by those who promote shrimp aquaculture.A takeover by large companies of extensive tracts of land for shrimp farm development may have asevere negative effect on the local community. If smallholders fail in their efforts at shrimp farming,they tend to change their land use to other activities. If, on the other hand, a corporate-owned shrimpdevelopment fails, after having bought up the land from smallholders, the area may be abandoned andall economic activities discontinued, and the people who formerly owned the land have neitheremployment nor the right to use the land. In these cases, the negative impacts on the local communitymay be devastating and permanent.Scale, intensity and suitability of shrimp culture for poverty eliminationModern shrimp farming is often incorrectly characterized as the domain of large corporations. On aglobal scale, and especially in Southeast Asia, small-scale shrimp farmers are the dominant sector ofthe industry, in terms of numbers and production. However, more intensive forms of shrimp farmingare often not easily accessible to the poor, who may also be at a disadvantage in product quality andmarketing.To date, national governments, sometimes supported by bilateral development agencies, have oftenbeen oriented towards large-scale shrimp aquaculture, while international aid agencies and financinginstitutions have tended to support smaller-scale projects. A number of attempts have been made toestablish shrimp farming ventures that have as their main objective improving the lives of the poorcoastal population. The most common approach in the past has been cooperative farming, in which theactivity is undertaken as a community cooperative.During the first few years of such cooperative shrimp farming, which was characterized by extensive orsemi-intensive methods, results were generally good. However, as more intensive methods of farmingwere adopted, problems arose, and in some cases there was complete failure. Failure was mainlycaused by lack of proper training, particularly in preventing and controlling disease outbreaks, whichare most likely in intensive shrimp farming. Intensive shrimp farming is a high-risk, high-rewardactivity that requires significant investment as well as access to credit during the first period ofoperation.But even in areas where cooperative semi-intensive and intensive farming have failed, small-scaleshrimp farming has sometimes survived, using mostly extensive and semi-extensive methods.Extensive and semi-intensive small-scale farming does not require as much capital as intensive shrimpfarming, but neither does it generate the large rewards associated with intensive shrimp farming.44
Page 7 and 8: sensitivity analysis should include
Page 9 and 10: ABBREVIATIONSMTkgmcmhaozPUDFOBCIFC&
Page 11 and 12: ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORTIn Chapte
Page 13 and 14: same time, development is necessary
Page 15 and 16: Current shrimp farming practice inc
Page 17 and 18: Current status of the industryToday
Page 19 and 20: In recent years, several major crop
Page 21: CHAPTER 2: SHRIMP FARMING SYSTEMSSh
Page 24 and 25: FeedsHatcheries use a combination o
Page 26 and 27: FIGURE 8. CONTINUUM OF DIFFERENT SH
Page 28 and 29: TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF INPUTS FOR T
Page 30 and 31: Shrimp farming systems vary greatly
Page 32 and 33: creeks, and sea-grass beds, fulfill
Page 34 and 35: arrangement in Thailand, for exampl
Page 36 and 37: capacity is not exceeded, the nutri
Page 38 and 39: shrimp or high-value finfish produc
Page 40 and 41: In more immediately practical terms
Page 42 and 43: Disease prevention and managementDi
Page 44 and 45: (Raa 1996) indicates that it is pos
Page 46 and 47: suitable for human consumption or f
Page 48 and 49: • Supply and effluent canals shou
Page 50 and 51: CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPA
Page 52 and 53: opportunities would need to be iden
Page 56 and 57: One of the key elements for success
Page 58 and 59: Minimizing negative social repercus
Page 60 and 61: CHAPTER 5: FINANCIAL RISKS ASSOCIAT
Page 62 and 63: Credit riskAccess to credit at fair
Page 64 and 65: Natural factorsShrimp diseaseThe ou
Page 66 and 67: CHAPTER 6: PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Page 68 and 69: Planning and resource managementIna
Page 70 and 71: Such initiatives have been or are b
Page 72 and 73: Conclusions and recommendationsReco
Page 74 and 75: equired to promote sustainability a
Page 76 and 77: CHAPTER 7: PROJECT PLANNING AND ASS
Page 78 and 79: • Appraisal and supervision missi
Page 80 and 81: The structure of the executive summ
Page 82 and 83: CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDAT
Page 84 and 85: • Requirements and guidance for f
Page 86 and 87: EmploymentAs mentioned in the repor
Page 88 and 89: ANNEX 1: A BLUEPRINT FOR FEASIBILIT
Page 90 and 91: • Sensitivity calculations and an
Page 92 and 93: Table A4: World shrimp farming prod
Page 94 and 95: ANNEX 4: CASE STUDIES UNDERTAKEN BY
Page 96 and 97: ColombiaThe Adoption of Good Manage
Page 98 and 99: LocationAppendix A--Meetings Held o
Page 104 and 105:
BIBLIOGRAPHYAdger, W.N. 1998. Susta
Page 106 and 107:
Claridge, G. 1996. Legal approaches
Page 108 and 109:
Hambrey, J.B., M. Phillips, K. Chow
Page 110 and 111:
Phillips, M.J., & D.J. Macintosh. 1
Page 112:
World Commission on Environment and
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