TRANSPORTATION - BTS - Bureau of Transportation Statistics

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among the various modes of transport. Significant technological efforts will continue to beneeded to reduce the introduction of aquatic nuisance species and to mitigate the effects ofcruise ship discharges of sewage and wastewater.Navigation Aids: Navigation aids can be grouped into two categories: short- and long-range.In the past, primary navigation was based on short-range aid, which included buoys andlighthouses, daymarkers, foghorns, and fog signals. Focus was on improvements inconstruction and maintenance of existing navigation aid technology. Lightships—unmannedsmall vessels equipped with lights—were still in operation, but were phased out in the early1980s. Long-range navigation systems (LORAN) relying on a grid of low-frequency radiowaves transmitted from ground-based stations located around the world provided accuracywithin one quarter mile for both civil and military air, land, and marine users until the mid-1990s. Today, the satellite-based GPS provides reliable accuracy to within a few meters. Avariety of electronic aids, ranging from direction-indicating beacons to satellites, have beenused in radionavigation. The Radionavigation Aids Program, which manages and operatesfederal maritime radio aids, provides continuous all-weather navigation capability.Application of new technologies to navigation and marking systems can improve overallmission performance by providing alternative, customized cues that allow users to navigatein a wider range of environmental conditions and situations. In the long term, if such asystem could meet stringent reliability and availability standards, it could be argued that thephysical hardware infrastructure could be eliminated, and the support fleet and personnelcould then be deployed to other critical missions, providing improved resource allocation.Navigation Charts: A chart is a working document used by the mariner both as a roadmapand worksheet, and is essential for safe navigation. In conjunction with supplementalnavigational aids, it is used to lay out courses and navigate ships by the shortest and safestroute. Federal law requires all ships in excess of 1,600 gross tons to have and use currenteditions of Navigational Charts or Coast Pilots produced by the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Agency’s (NOAA) Office of Coast Survey. Environmental groups, academia, andcoastal zone planners also use charts and hydrographic surveys.By the middle of the 19 th century, the Office of Coast Survey was using photography to shrinkand enlarge a chart’s scale and had developed a process that allowed engravers to make aninfinite number of copper printing plates from a single engraved master. The 20 th centurybrought the development of technology to find the waters’ depth in an attempt to identifyobstacles before ships encountered them.For the 21st century, NOAA is implementing its new Electronic Navigational Charts, whichcan meet demands for greater protection of life, property, and the environment, as well assignificantly improve the efficiency of maritime commerce. Using sources ranging from theUSCG’s weekly Notice to Mariners to letters from companies describing cables laid andchannels dredged, NOAA cartographers have equipped each electronic chart with embeddedinformation about hundreds of navigational aids, obstacles, and landmarks. By the end of2000, NOAA expects to have 90 Electronic Navigational Charts in circulation, focusing on 15to 20 critical ports on the east and west coasts of the United States [Gugliotta 2000].Vessel Traffic Management: In 1972, Congress passed the Ports and Waterways Safety Act.This act authorizes the USCG to establish, operate, and maintain vessel traffic services forports, harbors, and other waters subject to congested vessel traffic. The USCG operates theVessel Traffic Service in nine major U.S. ports and, since 1994, has shared responsibilities withthe State of California at the Port of Los Angeles-Long Beach [USDOT BTS, MARAD, andUSCG 1999]. In 1975, Vessel Traffic Service was mainly nonelectronic and relied heavily onthe skill of the mariner and on vessel construction. Today’s radar, closed-circuit television,radiotelephone, or a combination of these devices, provides surveillance of critical areas.6-34
The methods used to gather and distribute vessel traffic and marine safety information needimprovement. New approaches are necessary to improve the timeliness of information,increase overall distribution capacity and quality, and conform to the operation of modernnavigation systems. Fully automated approaches to information distribution can improvesafety, while reducing implementation and operating costs and reducing the communicationscongestion on the VHF marine frequencies. The methods, technologies, and standards thatcan support full automation of a modern vessel traffic management information service needto be developed, tested, and demonstrated under a variety of marine conditions. They alsoneed to be evaluated with respect to their sensitivity and responsiveness to the operationalneeds of the marine community.As part of the Vessel Traffic Management, an Automated Identification System has beendeveloped. It includes nine shipboard broadcast transponder systems, operating in the VHFmaritime band, capable of sending identification, position, heading, ship length, beam,draught, and hazardous cargo information to ships and to shore. The system is designed toreduce the number of vessel incidents in ports and busy waterways by providing ships withup-to-the-minute data on traffic conditions on the water. It also is capable of handling morethan 2,000 reports per minute and updates as often as every two seconds [USDOT BTS,MARAD, and USCG 1999].Vessel Propulsion: The 20 th century saw the demise of sailing ships, the rise and fall ofsteamships, and the rise of diesel engines. Scientific advances in hull design, the use of bilgekeels, and the adoption of improved ballasting techniques produced more stable vessels. Notonly did new hull designs reduce roll, but diesel engines also kept the vessels headed into thewind for even greater stability. However, they were not necessarily environmentally friendly.Research and development regarding vessel propulsion designs were focused on energyefficiency. Today studies are being conducted to develop fuel cell-based propulsion systems.These demonstrate the feasibility of reforming marine diesel to generate electric power usingcurrent fuel cell technology. Due to their higher efficiency, fuel cells can generate power using25-30 percent less fuel than existing marine diesels or gas turbines [USCG 1999]. While itappears technically feasible to implement such technology, the future development of thesesystems for shipboard use remains an issue.Initial U.S. Navy and USCG studies showed that existing land-based fuel cell systems need tobe made lighter, more compact, and resistant to salt, air and high shock environments beforethey are suitable for marine use. Fuel cell developers are reluctant to devote resources tomeeting these unique shipboard requirements until they are persuaded that a sufficientmarine market exists. Federal agencies, such as the U.S. Navy, USCG, and MaritimeAdministration, are contributing to this effort. Fuel cells are thermally efficient, have lowvibration and noise levels, and produce low exhaust emissions.Vessel Construction and Cargo Handling: During the 1970s, intermodal shipping was a newconcept. Examples of new generation ships were barge carriers (lighter aboard ship andSEABEE systems), liquid natural gas tankers, and containerships. Fast containerships hadcapacities of approximately 3,000 20-foot equivalent units (TEUs) and traveled at speedsbetween 25 and 36 knots.Today’s container vessels have cargo capacity up to about 7,000 TEUs and travel at speeds of18 to 25 knots [Cargo Systems 1999]. Future container vessel capacity of 13,000 TEUs is beingconsidered. In order to handle the expected increase in container vessels and their cargocapacity, port terminals will need to expand and increase productivity of intermodal services.Sophisticated gate systems are being installed in ports to expedite truck movements into andout of terminals. The maritime industry is increasingly integrating electronic tools, such asthe Internet, and e-commerce is developing in the industry to better coordinate cargo bookingsand freight management.6-35
Page 1:
THE CHANGING FACE OF
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All material contained in this repo
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AcknowledgmentsU.S. Department of T
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Table of ContentsChapter 1—Vision
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Chapter 6—Technology ............
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change. Secretary Slater challenged
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A Chronology of Vision and Vigilanc
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January 1999New Rule Revising USDOT
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Table 1-1Forecasts Past and Future1
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Technology has played a critical ro
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Today, highway vehicle-miles travel
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conventional classroom with the adv
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than predicted. The large differenc
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In 1975, the nation saw nearly 50,0
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FAA and NASA: Working Together on A
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traffic and more time with families
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operations, maintenance, and mannin
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EnergyIn 1975, the United States co
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General Motors has manufacturing fa
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immigration and drug smuggling by s
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This report is organized around six
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chapter 2Growth, Deregulation,and I
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Figure 2-2Economic Growth in the Un
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Growth of the Transportation System
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Figure 2-6Vehicle-Miles Traveled on
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Box 2-1ISTEA/TEA-21The Intermodal S
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Box 2-3TelecommutingEmerging techno
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Figure 2-11Urban Rail Systems in th
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Figure 2-12Transit Ridership: 1975-
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the Gulf Coast Corridor, New York
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Air Traffic Performance-Based Organ
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Figure 2-17U.S. Domestic and Intern
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Box 2-6Higher Profits for U.S. Airl
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Figure 2-21Regional/Commuter Passen
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Figure 2-24Fixed-Wing Piston Aircra
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The FAA, in cooperationwith NASA, i
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LaunchesIn 1999, narrow-body aircra
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Millions of short tonsFigure 2-34U.
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Table 2-1U.S. Oceangoing Merchant M
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Figure 2-39Top 25 U.S. Container Po
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Figure 2-41U.S. Total Waterborne Co
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Significant deregulation legislatio
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the curtailed service in rural area
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Figure 2-45Railroad Network Showing
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direct flights to destinations and
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Figure 2-47International and Domest
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asis between shippers and carriers.
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Figure 2-48Total Ton-Miles of Freig
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Japan and Korea are still our major
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This shift from a “push” to a
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We may have to consider workforce-r
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Logistics Management and Distributi
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chapter 3Safety“ There is need fo
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Figure 3-1Total Fatalities in All M
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7. do a better job of data collecti
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The USDOT human factors research in
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Figure 3-4Total Traffic Fatalities:
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Vehicle Rollover and Size Compatibi
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Box 3-2Pedestrian and Bicycle Trips
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Figure 3-9Alcohol-Related Traffic F
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Under TEA-21, some portion of feder
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Child Restraints: Standards for chi
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Demographic Characteristics (age)In
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Figure 3-18Crash Rate per 100,000 L
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Road CharacteristicsSafer Roads: Si
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Together, these systems provide an
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Automation of enforcement efforts
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By the mid-1980s, with deregulation
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Transit SafetyIn 1975, transit, lik
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Figure 3-28Total Train Incidents: 1
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Figure 3-31Rail-Related Fatality Ra
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Figure 3-34Number of Highway-Rail G
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Figure 3-35Fatal Commercial Air Tra
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In the early 1970s, the aviation in
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The program was enhanced by an agre
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Box 3-10 continued2,000 older, larg
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Figure 3-41Recreational Boating Acc
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systems for steering andmachinery m
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In addition to search and rescue ac
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communities with access to the info
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are growing. Smart pigs will be inc
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Regulations are issued by the USDOT
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Keys to the FutureA number of curre
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References23 CFR Part 1313. U.S. De
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U.S. Department of Transportation (
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_____. 2000c. Office of Investigati
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GlobalizationIn the last quarter-ce
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The Phenomenon of GlobalizationDuri
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Figure 4-4Foreign Direct Investment
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Mitsubishi Motor Sales of America,
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Table 4-4“Domestic” Vehicles Bu
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Table 4-5Top Selling Cars and Truck
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The European Union (EU) achieved fu
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Figure 4-6Open Skies Agreements wit
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Figure 4-8Foreign Residents Visitin
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The record growth of world travel h
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Figure 4-11Hull Loss Accident Rates
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integrated air and truck service. A
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traffic, will likely result in the
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Figure 4-18World Shipping Deliverie
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The world merchant fleet in 1975 co
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By 2025, U.S. ports must be prepare
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Figure 4-26Merchandise Exports to C
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through Laredo, Texas, increased 24
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approved for partnerships that woul
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Japan Automobile Manufacturers Asso
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U.S. Department of Transportation (
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chapter 5People, Energy, andthe Env
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Table 5-1Population and Passenger T
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carpools are now really family acti
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Figure 5-5Household Vehicle Ownersh
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Figure 5-8Commuting Flow: 1960-9045
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Box 5-2Access to Transportation for
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Figure 5-12Mode of Transportation b
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Figure 5-16Long-Distance Trip Makin
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Figure 5-18Estimated Percentage of
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transportation’s share of U.S. pe
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Figure 5-21Changes in the Energy In
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loss to the U.S. economy is equal t
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States’ gas hydrate resources alo
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Box 5-4Environmental JusticeCommuni
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Despite dramatic reductions in air
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Figure 5-27Particulate Emissions: 1
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cleaner industrial and electrical g
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Because transportation greenhouse g
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Other fuels show less promise at th
Page 263 and 264: The advent of increased environment
Page 265 and 266: eduction programs will be highly su
Page 267 and 268: A 1980s study estimated that 37 per
Page 269 and 270: and if we remain vigilant, we could
Page 271 and 272: Invasive Species: Transportation in
Page 273 and 274: Box 5-11Clinton-Gore Livable Commun
Page 275 and 276: Organization for Economic Cooperati
Page 277: _____. 2000a. National Air Quality
Page 281 and 282: chapter 6TechnologyDramatic develop
Page 283 and 284: U.S. and Allied forces with accurat
Page 285 and 286: the base station to monitor the ent
Page 287 and 288: The roots of ITS predate the establ
Page 289 and 290: Figure 6-36-16Projected The Largest
Page 291 and 292: Figure 6-4Deployment of Traffic Sig
Page 293 and 294: payment systems becomeintegrated wi
Page 295 and 296: Collision Avoidance and Warning Sys
Page 297 and 298: Computer dispatched paratransit veh
Page 299 and 300: Box 6-5Types of High-Speed Ground T
Page 301 and 302: Figure 6-16 6-10Projected Growth in
Page 303 and 304: Box 6-6 continuedIntelligent Railro
Page 305 and 306: military, and general aviation) to
Page 307 and 308: (“independent”) radars and seco
Page 309 and 310: USDOT, FAAUsing the Enhanced Traffi
Page 311 and 312: national deployment and as users eq
Page 313: Airport complexes (Reagan National,
Page 317 and 318: commodities, but intelligent contro
Page 319: chapter 7National Security“In the
Page 322 and 323: The nation’s ability to meet the
Page 324 and 325: Figure 7-1National Defense Reserve
Page 326 and 327: The Strategic Highway Network (STRA
Page 328 and 329: Figure 7-4Worldwide International T
Page 330 and 331: Figure 7-9Terrorist Attacks Against
Page 332 and 333: These acts of piracy accounted for
Page 334 and 335: Keys to the FutureTerrorism is a gr
Page 336 and 337: Box 7-2Aviation Security TrainingPr
Page 338 and 339: threat in the mid-1970s—the gover
Page 340 and 341: Threats to Maritime SecurityOur Nat
Page 342 and 343: Latin America and the Carribean Bas
Page 344 and 345: ______. 1999. America’s Merchant
Page 346 and 347: Figure 2-41 U.S. Total Waterborne C
Page 348 and 349: Figure 5-1 Dependence Ratio: 1950-2
Page 351 and 352: appendix BAcronyms and Initialisms3
Page 353 and 354: LCDLEOLNGLPGLTLLTVsMaglevMARADMERCO
Page 355 and 356: appendix CGlossaryAir control facil
Page 357 and 358: Commuter air carrier: A small certi
Page 359 and 360: Geostationary orbit: Any orbit at a
Page 361 and 362: Loran: An electronic navigational s
Page 363 and 364: Seat-miles: The aircraft-miles flow
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Vessel feeder services: Cargo to/fr
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