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Australia during the gold-rush era came from Kwangtung province, and
more specifically the Canton Delta, in southern China. Chinese from this
area also migrated to New Zealand, the United States and Canada. In
contrast, Chinese who migrated to Thailand came from Swatao in the
north-east of Kwantung province, and most of those who migrated to other
South-East Asian countries such as Malaysia, the Philippines and
Indonesia were Hokkien Chinese from Fukien province. Hakka Chinese,
originally from central China, settled in various parts of south China before
also migrated to south-east Asia, and particularly, to Malaysia.
Choy also indicates that migration took place from the northern-most
provinces of China early in the twentieth century, at dates later than are of
interest for the purpose of my research.
I will seek to discuss in my conclusions the possibility that at least some of
the Chinese at Milparinka were familiar with the requirements of agriculture
in an arid red soil environment, and that this familiarity, together with other
features of their subsistence at Milparinka, suggests they may have had
links with Northern China. This would contrast them with the majority of
Chinese then living in Australia.
Many dialects are spoken in China, and 'dialect groups, with the exception
of the Hakkas, correspond to places of origin and prOVide one of the basic
c1assificatory criteria of Chinese migrants' (Choy 1975:5). A second
reference (Yong, 1977:2) indicates that each dialect, because the
differences between dialects presented a complex problem, tended to hold
the loyalty of immigrants from the specific region in which it was spoken.
Choy (1975:11-13) also explains that the lineage system which applied in
China during the nineteenth century also served to draw individuals from
each province together as groups. This system emphasised lineage
solidarity, to the extent that few women were permitted to emigrate for fear
that this would result in the loss of a family from the lineage. He then
continues:
'The ideal migrant was one who regarded himself as a member of
his own village but separated by distance. If he was married when
he migrated he would be encouraged to go without his wife but to
return to his home village once in a few years, thereby maintaining
his overseas earnings and keeping in touch with his family. When
his economic condition permitted, he might take a native girl as his
second wife and maintain two households... Here can be found
some of the reasons for the objections in North America and
Australia that Chinese migrants were clannish and non-assimilable,
and that they remitted their earnings instead of spending them in
their place of residence. '
Lineage solidarity also affected the means of migration, with gangs of
labourers working for head men recruited from important lineages in the
same area. Those migrating to seek gold often borrowed money for the
passage from 'friends and relatives both at home and overseas'. The