Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film

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and better A productions, a trend that continued after the war. The Supreme Court’s Paramount Decision in 1948 led to further cutbacks and consolidation. With every movie expected to stand on its own merits with bookers and buyers, there was little impulse on the part of exhibitors to book movies that were obvious cheapies. In 1946 Monogram formed Allied Artists to produce higher-budget pictures, while it continued to churn out B movies. The corporate name was officially changed to Allied Artists in 1953, and the company signed high-profile directors such as Billy Wilder (1906–2002) and John Huston (1906–1987) to make more expensive films. PRC was bought out by Eagle- Lion, a British distribution company, in 1947. Eagle- Lion made a series of taut B-level thrillers that were a cut above PRC’s earlier productions, including Anthony Mann’s T-Men (1947) and Raw Deal (1948) and the noirish fantasy Repeat Performance (1947). In 1950 Eagle-Lion merged with Film Classics, only to be absorbed by United Artists the next year. At Republic, Yates experimented with A productions, but faced steadily declining profits throughout the 1950s—in no small measure because of his efforts to prop up the acting career of his wife, Vera Hruba Ralston (1921–2003). Republic closed shop in 1959. The spirit of B movie production lived on in two realms. The first was the series of teen-oriented exploitation pictures made by newcomers like American International Pictures (AIP). They were quick, cheap, and made on budgets of less than $100,000. AIP packaged the films as double bills (Sorority Girl teamed with Motorcycle Gang, both 1957; She Gods of Shark Reef paired with Night of the Blood Beast, both 1958), for product-hungry neighborhood theaters and drive-ins around the country. It was, however, the growing television industry that subsumed much of B movie production in the early 1950s. Like their radio counterparts, the young television networks concentrated on live shows. Filmed programs were used as a last resort, but some of their advantages became obvious fairly quickly. ‘‘Telefilms’’ could be rerun ad nauseam, and it was far easier to stage action sequences in a filmed program than with a live show. Several B western stalwarts made the successful, and profitable, transition to television. William Boyd (1895–1972), who was savvy enough to buy the rights to his old Hopalong Cassidy movies and the Hoppy character, brought them to television, and made new episodes as well. Roy Rogers starred in The Roy Rogers Show from 1951 to 1957 to the delight of a new generation of fans. Others who had made a living in Bs made the move to the new medium. For instance, Roland D. BMovies Reed (1894–1972), who edited and directed B movies for Chesterfield-Invincible, formed Roland Reed Productions in 1950 to produce TV commercials. The firm soon began producing programs as well, making a number of successful early telefilm series such as My Little Margie and Rocky Jones, Space Ranger. Jack Chertok (1906–1995), who produced Bs such as Eyes in the Night (1942) at MGM, went on to produce several significant early telefilm series, including The Lone Ranger, Private Secretary, and Sky King. B movie production techniques were the natural model for television film production. In Hollywood TV Christopher Anderson notes that the creation of a television production division at Warner Bros. ‘‘required the studio to resurrect its dormant tradition of B-movie production and retool to operate on budgets barely adequate even on Poverty Row’’ (Anderson, p. 172). This meant tight budgets, restricted production schedules, the recycling of stories and scripts, and pilfering the studio library for stock shots. If B filmmakers and production techniques saw new life with the advent of television, the B movie did as well. The film libraries of Poverty Row companies were some of the first to turn up on early television, allowing TV stations to pad their programming day, in much the same way that Bs had padded out double bills for exhibitors for twenty years. A new generation was exposed to the simple pleasures, and occasional artistry, of B movies through the video medium. Today Bs continue to fill out the hours on cable television networks devoted to classic movies, westerns, and mysteries, as well as the shelves of video and DVD stores. SEE ALSO Cult Films; Distribution; Exhibition; Studio System FURTHER READING Anderson, Christopher. Hollywood TV: The Studio System in the Fifties. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Dixon, Wheeler, ed. Producers Releasing Corporation: A Comprehensive Filmography and History. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1986. Gomery, Douglas. The Hollywood Studio System. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986. Martin, Len D. The Republic Pictures Checklist: Features, Serials, Cartoons, Short Subjects and Training Films of Republic Pictures Corporation, 1935–1959. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1998. McCarthy, Todd, and Charles Flynn, eds. Kings of the Bs: Working within the Hollywood System. New York: Dutton, 1975. Miller, Don. B Movies: An Informal Survey of the American Low-Budget Film, 1933–1945. New York: Curtis, 1973. ———. Hollywood Corral. New York: Popular Library, 1976. SCHIRMER ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FILM 159
BMovies Okuda, Ted. The Monogram Checklist: The Films of Monogram Pictures Corporation, 1931–1952. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1987. Pitts, Michael R. Poverty Row Studios, 1929–1940: An Illustrated History of 53 Independent Film Companies with a Filmography for Each. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1997. Siegel, Joel E. Val Lewton: The Reality of Terror. New York: Viking Press, 1973. Taves, Brian. ‘‘The B Film: Hollywood’s Other Half.’’ In Grand Design: Hollywood as a Modern Business Enterprise, 1930–1939, edited by Tino Balio, 323–350. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Telotte, J. P. Dreams of Darkness: Fantasy and the Films of Val Lewton. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985. Weaver, Tom. Poverty Row Horrors: Monogram, PRC and Republic Horror Films of the Forties. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1993. Eric Schaefer 160 SCHIRMER ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FILM
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Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film
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Project Editor Michael J. Tyrkus Ed
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VOLUME 1 Contents Preface IX List o
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PREFACE subject in English. In a fe
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LIST OF ARTICLES CO-PRODUCTIONS Mar
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LIST OF ARTICLES UNIVERSAL Thomas S
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Academy Awards Ò members fund the
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Academy Awards Ò Denzel Washington
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Academy Awards Ò KATHARINE HEPBURN
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Academy Awards Ò Katharine Hepburn
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The performances seen in films refl
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films and high-concept blockbusters
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However, in contrast to media celeb
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encounter film performances. Anothe
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John Cassavetes. EVERETT COLLECTION
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Bertolt Brecht. EVERETT COLLECTION.
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Portrait of Marlon Brando at the ti
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Pearson, Roberta E. Eloquent Gestur
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Action and Adventure Films Bruce Wi
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Action and Adventure Films ERROL FL
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Action and Adventure Films and high
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Action and Adventure Films Arnold S
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It seems certain that the first ‘
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the Garbo vehicle A Woman of Affair
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JOHN HUSTON b. Nevada, Missouri, 5
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provide formidable barriers that ha
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RAYMOND CHANDLER b. Chicago, Illino
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Witches of Salem, 1957), from The C
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Africa South of the Sahara Senegale
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Africa South of the Sahara ‘‘pu
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Africa South of the Sahara Emitai (
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Africa South of the Sahara employin
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Africa South of the Sahara cultures
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African American Cinema Spike Lee
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African American Cinema OSCAR MICHE
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African American Cinema Sidney Poit
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African American Cinema Sidney Poit
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African American Cinema characters
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African American Cinema Spike Lee.
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Agents and Agencies from numerous e
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Agents and Agencies LEW WASSERMAN b
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Agents and Agencies motion pictures
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‘‘Actors are cattle,’’ Alfr
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created by using a real tarantula a
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Courage of Lassie (1946), with Eliz
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Even in the contemporary era, when
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of short stop-motion films made by
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Pal’s legacy in Europe has been s
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Jan Svankmajer. JAN SVANKMAJER/ATHA
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CORE Digital Pictures in Toronto, C
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Norman McLaren. Ó CORBIS KIPA. Wha
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The ‘‘Arab world’’ constitu
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influenced film practice in other A
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Elia Suleiman. EVERETT COLLECTION.
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Manal Khader in Divine Intervention
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Film and television history can onl
Page 113 and 114: HENRI LANGLOIS b. Smryna (Izmir), T
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Page 119 and 120: attention, but none has yet to atta
Page 121 and 122: The term ‘‘art cinema’’ is
Page 123 and 124: Michelangelo Antonioni. Ó JOHN SPR
Page 125 and 126: that run counter to the body of con
Page 127 and 128: filmmakers Akira Kurosawa (1910-199
Page 129 and 130: ASIANAMERICANCINEMA Asian American
Page 131 and 132: The ‘‘white man’s burden’
Page 133 and 134: Named after John Wayne, Wang studie
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Page 137 and 138: Between 1910 and 1912, eighty Austr
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Page 141 and 142: Peter Weir shooting The Mosquito Co
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Page 145 and 146: Jane Campion at the time of Sweetie
Page 147 and 148: AUTEUR THEORY AND AUTHORSHIP Transl
Page 149 and 150: HOWARD HAWKS b. Goshen, Indiana, 30
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Page 155 and 156: In important respects—and this wa
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Page 159 and 160: BMovies Edgar G. Ulmer’s The Man
Page 161 and 162: BMovies as Jane Eyre (1934). Monogr
Page 163: BMovies Edgar G. Ulmer. EVERETT COL
Page 167 and 168: Biography more unlikely, see at pub
Page 169 and 170: Biography Ken Russell’s The Music
Page 171 and 172: Biography Ken Russell has had a mul
Page 173 and 174: Biography Bingham, Dennis. ‘‘I
Page 175 and 176: Brazil Brazilian audience through i
Page 177 and 178: Brazil Carlos ‘‘Cacá’’ Die
Page 179 and 180: Brazil Challenge, Paulo Saraceni, 1
Page 181 and 182: Brazil expressed by Arnaldo Jabor (
Page 183 and 184: The motion picture camera is the ba
Page 185 and 186: THOMAS ALVA EDISON b. Milan, Ohio,
Page 187 and 188: Light from external subject Lens Di
Page 189 and 190: will look like. Because it is not a
Page 191 and 192: Richard Leacock (center) with Rober
Page 193 and 194: CAMERA MOVEMENT Camera movement is
Page 195 and 196: Kenji Mizoguchi. THE KOBAL COLLECTI
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Page 201 and 202: Max Ophüls. MAX OPHÜLS/THE KOBAL
Page 203 and 204: FURTHER READING Bazin, André. What
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Page 207 and 208: Canada dialogue and script, shootin
Page 209 and 210: Canada Typical Canadian losers Doug
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Canon and Canonicity served as a re
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Canon and Canonicity same time, gro
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Cartoons Winsor McCay’s Gertie th
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Cartoons CHUCK JONES b. Spokane, Wa
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Cartoons Chuck Jones parodied Wagne
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Casting is one of the least underst
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Charles Coburn when looking for a w
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Lynn Stalmaster. KEVIN WINTER/GETTY
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fame: John Wayne as Genghis Khan in
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Censorship WILL H. HAYS b. William
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Censorship The suggestive image of
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Censorship Peter Watkins’s The Wa
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Censorship ‘‘indecency,’’ w
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Character Actors public also embrac
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Character Actors Prominent American
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Character Actors SEE ALSO Acting; C
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Child Actors Jackie Cooper with Wal
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Child Actors Shirley Temple was an
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Child Actors Most young actors in t
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Children’s films may be divided i
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most in the realm of animated featu
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disability issues. Oliver! (1968) b
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Chilean cinema emerged at the turn
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Raúl Ruiz studied law and theology
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dictatorship; Gringuito (Sergio Cas
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China 1934), both depicting the pli
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China Gong Li in Zhang Yimou’s Ra
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China Zhang Yimou. PHOTO BY S. SARA
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The job of choreographer or dance d
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Roy Scheider as choreographer Joe G
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Bob Fosse on the set of All That Ja
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Cinematography Gregg Toland’s dee
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Cinematography GREGG TOLAND b. Char
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Cinematography will appear in crisp
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Cinematography Néstor Almendros wi
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Cinematography James Wong Howe’s
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Cinematography Néstor Almendros’
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The first filmgoers who referred to
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wars of high and low categories of
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‘‘Class’’ is a term used to
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to be the most important art form
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Mike Leigh. PHOTOBYCJCONTINO/EVERET
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acism, sexism, and militarism). Goi
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The science fiction film Strange In
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answer questions that would have in
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Edward Dmytryk on location directin
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Dalton Trumbo. EVERETT COLLECTION.
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number (57) of Communists he claims
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A Hollywood myth has it that the co
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and his gifted cameraman Gunnar Fis
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COLONIALISM AND POSTCOLONIALISM Amo
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Although the visual artist Tracey M
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(Robert Flaherty, 1922), but also c
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notice, such as in Once Were Warrio
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Color The Wizard of Oz (Victor Flem
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Color HERBERT THOMAS KALMUS b. Bost
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Color Monica Vitti in Il Deserto ro
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Color The Band Wagon (Vincente Minn
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The rise of Columbia Pictures to Ho
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HARRY COHN b. New York, New York, 2
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not only scripted but also informal
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Rita Hayworth in Gilda (Charles Vid
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From Here to Eternity (1953), On th
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In a valuable insight on the nature
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Ferrell (b. 1967) fails as a toymak
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Charlie Chaplin in 1936, the year o
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Parody is often enhanced by various
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‘‘boy-meets-girl’’ formula
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FURTHER READING Bergson, Henri. Lau
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Comics and Comic Books than three h
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Comics and Comic Books Among the mo
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Co-productions other languages as w
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Co-productions sion programs throug
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Costume design is as crucial to the
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out contradictions such as Walter P
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ADRIAN b. Adrian Adolph Greenburg,
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Piero Gherardi’s extreme costumes
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The word ‘‘credits’’ refers
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Saul Bass. EVERETT COLLECTION. REPR
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Saul Bass’s credits for Otto Prem
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multiple exposures, and the musical
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Crew The size and diversity of mode
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Crew VISUAL DESIGN The production d
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Crew musical score is designed by a
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Crime films rule the world from Eas
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series of crime comedies at England
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HUMPHREY BOGART b. New York, New Yo
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victim in Midnight in the Garden of
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Born in Queens, Martin Scorsese gre
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Krutnik, Frank. In a Lonely Street:
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