Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film

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Toward the beginning of The Wizard of Oz (1939), as she discovers that her house has landed on the Wicked Witch of the East, the heroine Dorothy (Judy Garland) dons a pair of ruby slippers. Sparkling and unforgettable in their redness, these shoes constitute the center of an important filmic moment: not only do they signal the beginning of the Technicolor era in perhaps the most popular film of all time, they also remain for viewers of all ages among the most memorable objects in twentiethcentury screen history. Perhaps their centrality in pop iconography stems from the superior redness of Technicolor red—a red more elusive and more beckoning, more jewel-like and of a denser and greater purity than any other red we can see on the screen, and indeed more saturated and intense than reds we can see in everyday life. To appreciate the long struggle to infuse color into moving images, one must first understand that in some respects the human eye is more sensitive to color than is film, and that in some respects film is more discerning than the human eye. The subtlest gradations of color and variations in saturation and hue that characterize objects are often beyond what film can record. But at the same time film does record, and intensively, the color temperature of illumination falling on those objects: the characteristic blue of daylight, for example, or the yellow of tungsten light, in either case something that we do not typically perceive with our eyes. Effecting color cinematography has therefore never been an easy task. Color in special effects cinematography is a persistent and vexing problem, especially in the combinations of positive and negative prints used in matte and rear-projection work. But the ability to infuse consistent color into the moving COLOR image has itself posed challenges throughout the history of the medium. TINTING, TONING, AND EARLY COLOR SYSTEMS Coloration of moving images goes back to Athanasius Kircher’s projection system of 1646, in which sunlight reflected against painted mirrors cast an image on a wall. This was a harbinger of many of the early efforts at tinting films in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In tinting, color was applied by hand to individual frames of a film; in toning, entire shots were bathed in a colored solution. The French company Pathé used a stencil process for hand-tinting, which reduced the variability that was characteristic of American tinted films; prints rented from Pathé tended to be more similar to each other than those rented from, say, Edison. Two of the films on the first program at Koster and Bial’s Music Hall in New York on 23 April 1896, made use of hand-tinted color. The impresario Siegmund Lubin (1851–1923) premiered mono-tinting around 1904, offering films in which various scenes had been tinted different colors; this same technique, used within the context of a narrative strategy, characterized D. W. Griffith’s The Lonedale Operator (D. W. Griffith, 1911), where blue and red cast shots were alternated with untinted black-and-white to striking effect. Hand-tinting can be found in The Great Train Robbery (1903), the most celebrated moment being the reddish gun blast we see when the principal robber fires his gun into the camera. (Depending on the whim of the entrepreneur who rented one of two different versions for SCHIRMER ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FILM 333
Color The Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming, 1939) signalled the triumph of Technicolor. EVERETT COLLECTION. REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION. 334 SCHIRMER ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FILM
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Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film
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Project Editor Michael J. Tyrkus Ed
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VOLUME 1 Contents Preface IX List o
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PREFACE subject in English. In a fe
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LIST OF ARTICLES CO-PRODUCTIONS Mar
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LIST OF ARTICLES UNIVERSAL Thomas S
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Academy Awards Ò members fund the
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Academy Awards Ò Denzel Washington
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Academy Awards Ò KATHARINE HEPBURN
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Academy Awards Ò Katharine Hepburn
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The performances seen in films refl
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films and high-concept blockbusters
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However, in contrast to media celeb
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encounter film performances. Anothe
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John Cassavetes. EVERETT COLLECTION
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Bertolt Brecht. EVERETT COLLECTION.
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Portrait of Marlon Brando at the ti
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Pearson, Roberta E. Eloquent Gestur
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Action and Adventure Films Bruce Wi
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Action and Adventure Films ERROL FL
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Action and Adventure Films and high
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Action and Adventure Films Arnold S
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It seems certain that the first ‘
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the Garbo vehicle A Woman of Affair
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JOHN HUSTON b. Nevada, Missouri, 5
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provide formidable barriers that ha
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RAYMOND CHANDLER b. Chicago, Illino
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Witches of Salem, 1957), from The C
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Africa South of the Sahara Senegale
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Africa South of the Sahara ‘‘pu
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Africa South of the Sahara Emitai (
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Africa South of the Sahara employin
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Africa South of the Sahara cultures
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African American Cinema Spike Lee
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African American Cinema OSCAR MICHE
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African American Cinema Sidney Poit
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African American Cinema Sidney Poit
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African American Cinema characters
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African American Cinema Spike Lee.
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Agents and Agencies from numerous e
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Agents and Agencies LEW WASSERMAN b
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Agents and Agencies motion pictures
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‘‘Actors are cattle,’’ Alfr
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created by using a real tarantula a
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Courage of Lassie (1946), with Eliz
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Even in the contemporary era, when
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of short stop-motion films made by
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Pal’s legacy in Europe has been s
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Jan Svankmajer. JAN SVANKMAJER/ATHA
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CORE Digital Pictures in Toronto, C
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Norman McLaren. Ó CORBIS KIPA. Wha
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The ‘‘Arab world’’ constitu
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influenced film practice in other A
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Elia Suleiman. EVERETT COLLECTION.
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Manal Khader in Divine Intervention
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Film and television history can onl
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HENRI LANGLOIS b. Smryna (Izmir), T
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The National Film Preservation Boar
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Argentine filmmaking dates approxim
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attention, but none has yet to atta
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The term ‘‘art cinema’’ is
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Michelangelo Antonioni. Ó JOHN SPR
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that run counter to the body of con
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filmmakers Akira Kurosawa (1910-199
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ASIANAMERICANCINEMA Asian American
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The ‘‘white man’s burden’
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Named after John Wayne, Wang studie
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an Asian American context. However,
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Between 1910 and 1912, eighty Austr
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improving American sales, Longford
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Peter Weir shooting The Mosquito Co
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the strange volcanic rocks at Hangi
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Jane Campion at the time of Sweetie
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AUTEUR THEORY AND AUTHORSHIP Transl
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HOWARD HAWKS b. Goshen, Indiana, 30
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the originality of the auteur lies
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pasts, helping ideas about authorsh
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In important respects—and this wa
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journalism, relatively untroubled b
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BMovies Edgar G. Ulmer’s The Man
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BMovies as Jane Eyre (1934). Monogr
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BMovies Edgar G. Ulmer. EVERETT COL
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BMovies Okuda, Ted. The Monogram Ch
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Biography more unlikely, see at pub
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Biography Ken Russell’s The Music
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Biography Ken Russell has had a mul
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Biography Bingham, Dennis. ‘‘I
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Brazil Brazilian audience through i
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Brazil Carlos ‘‘Cacá’’ Die
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Brazil Challenge, Paulo Saraceni, 1
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Brazil expressed by Arnaldo Jabor (
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The motion picture camera is the ba
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THOMAS ALVA EDISON b. Milan, Ohio,
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Light from external subject Lens Di
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will look like. Because it is not a
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Richard Leacock (center) with Rober
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CAMERA MOVEMENT Camera movement is
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Kenji Mizoguchi. THE KOBAL COLLECTI
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to use zooms more frequently beginn
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cranes up to a great height, reveal
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Max Ophüls. MAX OPHÜLS/THE KOBAL
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FURTHER READING Bazin, André. What
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Canada north, they’ll soon be dri
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Canada dialogue and script, shootin
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Canada Typical Canadian losers Doug
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Canada Born in Egypt to Armenian pa
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Canada Morris, Peter. Embattled Sha
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Canon and Canonicity served as a re
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Canon and Canonicity same time, gro
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Cartoons Winsor McCay’s Gertie th
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Cartoons CHUCK JONES b. Spokane, Wa
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Cartoons Chuck Jones parodied Wagne
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Casting is one of the least underst
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Charles Coburn when looking for a w
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Lynn Stalmaster. KEVIN WINTER/GETTY
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fame: John Wayne as Genghis Khan in
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Censorship WILL H. HAYS b. William
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Censorship The suggestive image of
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Censorship Peter Watkins’s The Wa
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Censorship ‘‘indecency,’’ w
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Character Actors public also embrac
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Character Actors Prominent American
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Character Actors SEE ALSO Acting; C
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Child Actors Jackie Cooper with Wal
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Child Actors Shirley Temple was an
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Child Actors Most young actors in t
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Children’s films may be divided i
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most in the realm of animated featu
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disability issues. Oliver! (1968) b
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Chilean cinema emerged at the turn
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Raúl Ruiz studied law and theology
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dictatorship; Gringuito (Sergio Cas
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China 1934), both depicting the pli
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China Gong Li in Zhang Yimou’s Ra
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China Zhang Yimou. PHOTO BY S. SARA
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Page 287 and 288: Cinematography Néstor Almendros’
Page 289 and 290: The first filmgoers who referred to
Page 291 and 292: wars of high and low categories of
Page 293 and 294: ‘‘Class’’ is a term used to
Page 295 and 296: to be the most important art form
Page 297 and 298: Mike Leigh. PHOTOBYCJCONTINO/EVERET
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Page 301 and 302: The science fiction film Strange In
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Page 305 and 306: Edward Dmytryk on location directin
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Page 309 and 310: number (57) of Communists he claims
Page 311 and 312: A Hollywood myth has it that the co
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Page 315 and 316: COLONIALISM AND POSTCOLONIALISM Amo
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Page 333 and 334: HARRY COHN b. New York, New York, 2
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Page 337 and 338: Rita Hayworth in Gilda (Charles Vid
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Page 347 and 348: Parody is often enhanced by various
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Page 351 and 352: FURTHER READING Bergson, Henri. Lau
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Page 361 and 362: Costume design is as crucial to the
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Saul Bass’s credits for Otto Prem
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multiple exposures, and the musical
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Crew The size and diversity of mode
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Crew VISUAL DESIGN The production d
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Crew musical score is designed by a
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Crime films rule the world from Eas
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series of crime comedies at England
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HUMPHREY BOGART b. New York, New Yo
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victim in Midnight in the Garden of
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Born in Queens, Martin Scorsese gre
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Krutnik, Frank. In a Lonely Street:
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