Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film

in focus, making adjustments when either the camera or
the actors move. To allow instant evaluation of takes,
video footage may be recorded and played back by the
video assist operator.
If a camera is required to move during the take,
additional crew members are needed. The dolly grip
takes responsibility for the camera dolly, a wheeled support
that allows the camera to be moved along tracks. A
1973 invention now allows a Steadicam operator to move
the camera in a special device attached to his or her body,
which minimizes the shakiness of the operator’s movements.
A crane operator may be employed when a camera
(and sometimes its operator) needs to be elevated for
very high angled shots.
The electrical department is headed by the gaffer,
who is responsible for delivering the lighting effects
required by the director of photography. The gaffer’s first
assistant is the best boy electric (a title used irrespective of
actual gender), and the department also employs electricians,
or ‘‘sparks.’’ A generator operator may be needed
when extra power is required, especially common when
shooting on location.
Since the demands of lighting placement are often
complex, the gaffer relies heavily on the grips, physical
laborers who handle and maintain a range of equipment
used on the set, and who are particularly associated with
the lighting and camera departments. The key grip works
closely with the director of photography, the camera
operator, and the gaffer in order to plan ways to meet
the physical requirements of lighting and camera movement.
The key grip’s first assistant is known as the best
boy grip. Construction grips, or riggers, erect any scaffolding
required for the camera or lighting and help to
disassemble and reassemble sets.
Some sound is normally recorded during filming,
although much of the soundtrack is created during postproduction.
On set, the production sound mixer is responsible
for selecting microphones and supervising their
placement. Several different types may be used. These
include microphones concealed around the set—behind
furniture, for instance—and radio microphones worn
under the performers’ clothing. A boom, or long rod, is
often used to suspend a microphone above the action
and out of the camera’s range. This is handled by the
boom operator. The cable puller handles the masses of
wiring that the microphones require. The sound recordist
operates the tape recording equipment on the set.
PERFORMERS
The stars and supporting actors are rarely the only performers
in a film. Most films also use extras, who
perform small non-speaking roles, often as part of a
crowd. Many films also require stunt performers to
Crew
execute potentially dangerous physical actions, such as
catching fire. Some performers work as doubles, imitating
an actor who is unavailable, and are often filmed in long
shot or from a rear view. Stunt doubles can be used to
create the illusion that an actor is performing his or her
own stunts. Body doubles are used when an actor does
not possess the required physical attributes or when a star
refuses to appear naked. Other performers are not seen
physically but are featured on the soundtrack. They
include voice-over artists, who are used for spoken narration,
and voice actors, who create the character voices in
cartoons. Sometimes the voice of a live actor is replaced,
a practice especially common when singing is required.
The Hollywood star Rita Hayworth (1918–1987) had
her ‘‘singing voice’’ recorded by other artists, including
Nan Wynn (1915–1971), Martha Mears (1908–1986),
Anita Ellis (b. 1920), and Jo Ann Greer (d. 2001).
Stand-ins do not appear in the final film, but have a
very important function. During the preparation of a
shot, when lighting is set up and camera movements are
rehearsed, they replace the actors in order to allow the
actors time for other preparations, such as makeup.
OTHER PRODUCTION CREW
Most films require some special effects. This term normally
refers to illusions created on the film set, rather
than in postproduction. (Digital effects and other effects
created off-set are discussed in depth below.) The department
is headed by the special effects supervisor, and its
members may include such crew as a pyrotechnician,
who is an expert in creating fires and explosions, a model
maker, a puppeteer, and a projectionist, who operates the
equipment needed for back projection. The special effects
crew normally works closely with other departments, such
as makeup or stunts, so there may be no clear division
between them.
Some other crew members commonly employed
include runners or production assistants, security guards,
a maintenance engineer, a health and safety adviser, and
a unit nurse. Additional services are required for location
work. The transportation captain organizes the movement
of actors, crew members, and equipment between
sets and locations. A transport coordinator may also be
employed to supervise the availability of drivers and
vehicles. Catering, a crucial service during a shoot is
provided by a company or group of individuals who
supply the main meals to cast and crew. The craft service
maintains the availability of drinks and snacks throughout
the day.
POSTPRODUCTION SOUND
Music, sound effects, and even some of the dialogue are
recorded as well as edited during postproduction. The
SCHIRMER ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FILM 395