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AFRICA - SOUTHERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA On average, the landlocked southern African countries of Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have a higher level of human development than their maritime neighbors. This is unique among our sample of landlocked developing countries and has been largely driven by the persistent civil conflict in Angola and Mozambique. It also reflects the landlocked countries’ relatively high degree of regional transit integration, strong domestic infrastructure, relative domestic stability (with clear exceptions, for instance in Zimbabwe) and large quantity of mineral resources. - 19 -
Internal transport networks in the southern African landlocked countries generally surpass those of their war-torn neighbors Angola and Mozambique. Unlike the landlocked countries of eastern Africa, these southern African countries have several routing options available to them, including the well-developed South African corridors. Yet, despite these relatively high domestic infrastructure levels, significant regional transport challenges remain. The Interconnected Regional Rail Network (IRRN) of the region, for example, does not reach the Mozambique port of Nacala or any of the Angolan ports. Border delays also continue to be a significant problem. It is estimated that delays at the major border posts in the SADC region have cost US$48 million annually and often exceed 24 hours (InfraAfrica 2001). Reflecting these challenges, the overall cost of freight and insurance for the SADC landlocked counties (14.8% of export values) is still higher than that for Angola and Mozambique (8.9% of exports) (IMF BOPS 2001). While most of southern Africa’s exports are to the EU, serious efforts are underway to promote intra-regional trade through SADC, SACU and COMESA. Through these organizations, countries are working to upgrade physical integration and regional transportation. For example, the SADC has instituted the Southern African Transport and Communications Commission to integrate transport policy, freedom of transit, and regional infrastructure. COMESA has created the Yellow Card initiative, which guarantees third party insurance across signatory states, removing the need to acquire additional insurance coverage for each country. Other important agreements include: (1) the legally binding SADC Protocol on Transport, Communications and Meteorology (PTCM) which incorporates the SADC Regional Trunk Route Network (RTRN); (2) the SADC Protocol on Trade; (3) bilateral agreements including Corridor Planning Committees; (4) the COMESA Carriers license; (5) the SADC driver’s license; and (6) the Spatial Development Initiatives (SDI). Amidst these commitments to promoting integration and harmonization, problems of implementation and issues of national sovereignty have hindered progress in some instances (UN 1999). For example, while Zambia and Zimbabwe both agreed to the COMESA freetrade zone, Zambia has banned on fourteen Zimbabwean products due to Zimbabwean currency devaluations. Further to the recent efforts at regional integration, the landlocked countries of southern Africa, with the exception of Zimbabwe, have benefited from relative domestic stability. Such internal stability has allowed the region to actively further favorable regional relations. Civil conflicts in the maritime transit neighbors, Angola and Mozambique, however, have had led to a direct increase in trade costs and have limited potential transit options. During Mozambique’s civil war, for example, Malawi was forced to reroute its trade, which is estimated to have cost Malawi an additional US$50m-80m per year (approximately 4-6% of GDP) (World Bank 1995). While this vital corridor has been reopened, infrastructural damage has thus far limited its use. - 20 -
Page 1 and 2: THE CHALLENGES FACING LANDLOCKED DE
Page 3 and 4: to link to global markets. In doing
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Page 7 and 8: PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Page 9 and 10: First, landlocked countries are dep
Page 11 and 12: together a wide variety of sources,
Page 13 and 14: infrastructure. In these cases the
Page 15 and 16: 1.2.3. VULNERABILITY TO CIVIL CONFL
Page 17 and 18: the Central African Republic - Came
Page 19 and 20: 1.3 INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1
Page 21 and 22: • The southern African landlocked
Page 23: PART 2: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES - 18 -
Page 27 and 28: Ports Although Botswana’s geograp
Page 29 and 30: POLITICAL RELATIONS Lesotho’s int
Page 31 and 32: elatively better quality than most
Page 33 and 34: SWAZILAND Despite being landlocked,
Page 35 and 36: ZAMBIA While Zambia shares its bord
Page 37 and 38: Relations with South Africa have be
Page 39 and 40: Zimbabwe’s extensive rail network
Page 41 and 42: TRANSIT ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA The land
Page 43 and 44: UGANDA Uganda’s location allows i
Page 45 and 46: POLITICAL RELATIONS The formation o
Page 47 and 48: section on Uganda. The Central Corr
Page 49 and 50: BURUNDI In addition to lying over 1
Page 51 and 52: In 1996, after Major Pierre Buyoya
Page 53 and 54: Recognizing the dramatic effects th
Page 55 and 56: AFRICA - WESTERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF
Page 57 and 58: of transit. In fact, the landlocked
Page 59 and 60: only hindering normal road traffic
Page 61 and 62: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC With only
Page 63 and 64: Relations with the eastern neighbor
Page 65 and 66: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While
Page 67 and 68: MALI Upon declaring independence in
Page 69 and 70: Finally, and most importantly for M
Page 71 and 72: TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Road
Page 73 and 74: ASIA - CENTRAL TRANSIT ROUTES OF CE
Page 75 and 76:
TRANSIT ROUTES OF MONGOLIA As part
Page 77 and 78:
AFGHANISTAN Two decades of war, har
Page 79 and 80:
Afghanistan, the first by an Irania
Page 81 and 82:
Iran, Pakistan and Turkey constrain
Page 83 and 84:
KYRGYZSTAN Over 3600 km from the ne
Page 85 and 86:
POLITICAL RELATIONS Generally recog
Page 87 and 88:
The country’s two major highways,
Page 89 and 90:
TURKMENISTAN With direct access to
Page 91 and 92:
Ports and Waterways Turkmenistan ha
Page 93 and 94:
Domestic transport is hampered by t
Page 95 and 96:
MOLDOVA Although the former Soviet
Page 97 and 98:
MONGOLIA As the landlocked country
Page 99 and 100:
CAUCASUS TRANSIT ROUTES OF THE CAUC
Page 101 and 102:
ARMENIA While Armenia’s central g
Page 103 and 104:
With the closure of the Turkish and
Page 105 and 106:
worse (World Bank 2000). In fact, w
Page 107 and 108:
ASIA - SOUTH & SOUTH-EAST TRANSIT R
Page 109 and 110:
With the exception of western Afric
Page 111 and 112:
and exports pass through the port p
Page 113 and 114:
Khai (at the Thai-Laos border) to t
Page 115 and 116:
NEPAL Due to the Himalayan range to
Page 117 and 118:
More recently, India delayed the au
Page 119 and 120:
links to the railways of Argentina,
Page 121 and 122:
developing the nation’s road infr
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PARAGUAY Dependent primarily on tra
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BOPS Break Bulk CAN CAR CEEAC/ECCAS
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GENERAL ADB (2002). Annual Report 2
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United Nations General Assembly (20
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BOTSWANA CountryWatch (2003). Botsw
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EIU (2002). Malawi Country Profile
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ZAMBIA Chikoti, V. (?). Overview of
Page 137 and 138:
AFRICA - CENTRAL AND EASTERN BURUND
Page 139 and 140:
EIU (2002). Ethiopia Country Report
Page 141 and 142:
Mutumba-Lule, A. (2001). 17 Firms V
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- 138 -
Page 145 and 146:
Jean-Bertin, O. (2002). Burkina Fas
Page 147 and 148:
Evlo, K. (1995). Transit Transport
Page 149 and 150:
ASIA - CENTRAL United Nations (1994
Page 151 and 152:
UNESCAP (2002). Afghanistan: Status
Page 153 and 154:
EIU (2001). Railways in Kyrgyz Repu
Page 155 and 156:
Spiegel Online (2002). Moldawien, S
Page 157 and 158:
USDA FSA (2002). Tajikistan Shippin
Page 159 and 160:
CAUCASUS ARMENIA Armenia Foreign Mi
Page 161 and 162:
World Bank (2000). Project Appraisa
Page 163 and 164:
World Audit (2001). World Democracy
Page 165 and 166:
MONGOLIA Canning, D. (1998). A Data
Page 167 and 168:
WDI (2002). World Development Indic
Page 169 and 170:
UN DHA (1997). Paraguay El Niño Fl
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Map 1
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Table 2: Human Development - Rankin
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Table 4: Exports per Capita (2000 c
Page 177 and 178:
Figure 1: Human Development Indicat
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