the challenges facing landlocked developing countries: a case study ...

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Burundi’s internal road network is in good condition. The trunk roads to the Rwanda and Tanzania border have both recently undergone improvements, including the construction of a modern parking facility at the Kobero (Tanzania) crossing. Rail Burundi has no internal rail system but depends on the Tanzanian rail from Kigoma (Tanzania) on Lake Tanganyika to Dar es Salaam for much of its transport. The Tanzanian railway is considered to be unreliable and in poor condition. In June 2002, the Tanzania Railways Corporation suffered one of the deadliest train crashes in the continent’s history when one of its trains lost power and rolled backwards down a slope crashing into a freight train and reportedly killing over 200 people. Burundi also uses the Ugandan railway from Kampala to Mombasa, although this corridor is dominated by road transport. While this line has the potential to reduce the burden of transit freight on the Kampala-Mombasa highway, its dilapidated condition and undependability prevent it from doing so to any significant extent. As mentioned in the Uganda section of this report, it is estimated that an average trip from Kampala to Mombasa takes 21 days. The unreliability of the rail arrivals often make it impossible to book ships ahead of time at the port of Mombasa, causing further delays (EIU 2002). Ports/Waterways Most of Burundi’s goods eventually pass through the port at Dar es Salaam, while a smaller percent use the port at Mombasa. Handling charges at the port of Dar es Salaam are cheaper than those at Mombasa: charges for a 20ft container at Dar es Salaam are about $1,470, compared to $1,870 at Mombasa. Both ports have benefited from recent infrastructural improvements, including the construction of a grain handling facility at the port of Mombasa. Many of the recent improvements undertaken by these ports can be seen as a product of the direct competition of these ports for East Africa’s landlocked countries’ trade. The inland port of Bujumbura on Lake Tanganyika plays a major role in Burundi’s international flow of goods. Approximately 80% of Burundi’s external trade passes through this port on its way to Kigoma and ultimately Dar es Salaam. The port is operating at undercapacity, and is not considered to require additional capacity in the near future (UNCTAD 1999a). POLITICAL RELATIONS For the last decade and much of its history Burundi has been marked by violent civil wars and unstable relations with its neighbors. The 1993 assassination of its first democratically president, Melchior Ndadaye, sparked a bloody war that has continued for over a decade between the minority Tutsi-dominated army and ethnic Hutu rebels. Destruction of infrastructure, regional economic sanctions, and aggravated tensions with neighbors due to increasing spillovers of violence and refugee migrations have all compounded Burundi’s position as a landlocked country. While a tenuous and long-sought cease fire was signed in December 2002, both sides accused each other of breaking the agreement only days later. - 45 -
In 1996, after Major Pierre Buyoya seized power, Burundi’s neighboring countries imposed strict sanctions on the country, including the closure of all transportation links. It is estimated that these sanctions led to a 50 per cent loss in Burundi's export earnings and a 25 per cent increase in import costs in 1996. In addition to the sanctions, an international aid freeze was inflicted on Burundi. The sanctions necessitated the diversion of much of Burundi’s external trade to the ancillary Zambian corridor, and forced much of the regional trade into the informal sector. Such instability has restricted Burundi’s former role as a regional exporter and re-exporter of manufactured goods. Burundi’s relations with its most vital transit neighbor, Tanzania, have been particularly strained as a result of its own ongoing civil war. Tanzania continues to strongly oppose Tutsi military rule, and led the campaign for regional sanctions in 1996. The hundreds of thousands of Burundian refugees now living in Tanzania have further weakened relations (CNN 2000). The refugees are not only a strain on the Tanzanian economy, but also often lead rebel attacks on Burundi, undermining border security. Burundi accuses Tanzania of aiding such anti-government rebels (BBC 2002). Burundi is also involved in the civil war to its west in the DRC. Hostilities between the two governments are largely a product of the Congolese government’s weapons support for one of the main Burundian rebel groups, the CNDD-FDD. Similarly, the Burundian government has good relations with Rassemblement congolais pour la démocratie (RCD), the main rebel group opposing the DRC government. Burundi has meanwhile suffered from increasing tensions with its northern neighbor Rwanda. Despite facing similar internal ethnic tensions, the two governments are said to mistrust each other. Rwanda took part in the 1996-99 economic sanctions levied on Burundi. Burundi’s trade challenges have been exacerbated by conflicts independent of its own. All three border crossings along the Northern Transit Corridor have been subject to instability: in addition to the problems on the Burundi-Rwanda border, the Rwanda-Uganda border has witnessed increasing violence as a result of differing objectives in the DRC war and the Uganda-Kenya border has also been subject to periodic tensions and closures. - 46 -
Page 1 and 2: THE CHALLENGES FACING LANDLOCKED DE
Page 3 and 4: to link to global markets. In doing
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Page 7 and 8: PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Page 9 and 10: First, landlocked countries are dep
Page 11 and 12: together a wide variety of sources,
Page 13 and 14: infrastructure. In these cases the
Page 15 and 16: 1.2.3. VULNERABILITY TO CIVIL CONFL
Page 17 and 18: the Central African Republic - Came
Page 19 and 20: 1.3 INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1
Page 21 and 22: • The southern African landlocked
Page 23 and 24: PART 2: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES - 18 -
Page 25 and 26: Internal transport networks in the
Page 27 and 28: Ports Although Botswana’s geograp
Page 29 and 30: POLITICAL RELATIONS Lesotho’s int
Page 31 and 32: elatively better quality than most
Page 33 and 34: SWAZILAND Despite being landlocked,
Page 35 and 36: ZAMBIA While Zambia shares its bord
Page 37 and 38: Relations with South Africa have be
Page 39 and 40: Zimbabwe’s extensive rail network
Page 41 and 42: TRANSIT ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA The land
Page 43 and 44: UGANDA Uganda’s location allows i
Page 45 and 46: POLITICAL RELATIONS The formation o
Page 47 and 48: section on Uganda. The Central Corr
Page 49: BURUNDI In addition to lying over 1
Page 53 and 54: Recognizing the dramatic effects th
Page 55 and 56: AFRICA - WESTERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF
Page 57 and 58: of transit. In fact, the landlocked
Page 59 and 60: only hindering normal road traffic
Page 61 and 62: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC With only
Page 63 and 64: Relations with the eastern neighbor
Page 65 and 66: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While
Page 67 and 68: MALI Upon declaring independence in
Page 69 and 70: Finally, and most importantly for M
Page 71 and 72: TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Road
Page 73 and 74: ASIA - CENTRAL TRANSIT ROUTES OF CE
Page 75 and 76: TRANSIT ROUTES OF MONGOLIA As part
Page 77 and 78: AFGHANISTAN Two decades of war, har
Page 79 and 80: Afghanistan, the first by an Irania
Page 81 and 82: Iran, Pakistan and Turkey constrain
Page 83 and 84: KYRGYZSTAN Over 3600 km from the ne
Page 85 and 86: POLITICAL RELATIONS Generally recog
Page 87 and 88: The country’s two major highways,
Page 89 and 90: TURKMENISTAN With direct access to
Page 91 and 92: Ports and Waterways Turkmenistan ha
Page 93 and 94: Domestic transport is hampered by t
Page 95 and 96: MOLDOVA Although the former Soviet
Page 97 and 98: MONGOLIA As the landlocked country
Page 99 and 100: CAUCASUS TRANSIT ROUTES OF THE CAUC
Page 101 and 102:
ARMENIA While Armenia’s central g
Page 103 and 104:
With the closure of the Turkish and
Page 105 and 106:
worse (World Bank 2000). In fact, w
Page 107 and 108:
ASIA - SOUTH & SOUTH-EAST TRANSIT R
Page 109 and 110:
With the exception of western Afric
Page 111 and 112:
and exports pass through the port p
Page 113 and 114:
Khai (at the Thai-Laos border) to t
Page 115 and 116:
NEPAL Due to the Himalayan range to
Page 117 and 118:
More recently, India delayed the au
Page 119 and 120:
links to the railways of Argentina,
Page 121 and 122:
developing the nation’s road infr
Page 123 and 124:
PARAGUAY Dependent primarily on tra
Page 125 and 126:
BOPS Break Bulk CAN CAR CEEAC/ECCAS
Page 127 and 128:
GENERAL ADB (2002). Annual Report 2
Page 129 and 130:
United Nations General Assembly (20
Page 131 and 132:
BOTSWANA CountryWatch (2003). Botsw
Page 133 and 134:
EIU (2002). Malawi Country Profile
Page 135 and 136:
ZAMBIA Chikoti, V. (?). Overview of
Page 137 and 138:
AFRICA - CENTRAL AND EASTERN BURUND
Page 139 and 140:
EIU (2002). Ethiopia Country Report
Page 141 and 142:
Mutumba-Lule, A. (2001). 17 Firms V
Page 143 and 144:
- 138 -
Page 145 and 146:
Jean-Bertin, O. (2002). Burkina Fas
Page 147 and 148:
Evlo, K. (1995). Transit Transport
Page 149 and 150:
ASIA - CENTRAL United Nations (1994
Page 151 and 152:
UNESCAP (2002). Afghanistan: Status
Page 153 and 154:
EIU (2001). Railways in Kyrgyz Repu
Page 155 and 156:
Spiegel Online (2002). Moldawien, S
Page 157 and 158:
USDA FSA (2002). Tajikistan Shippin
Page 159 and 160:
CAUCASUS ARMENIA Armenia Foreign Mi
Page 161 and 162:
World Bank (2000). Project Appraisa
Page 163 and 164:
World Audit (2001). World Democracy
Page 165 and 166:
MONGOLIA Canning, D. (1998). A Data
Page 167 and 168:
WDI (2002). World Development Indic
Page 169 and 170:
UN DHA (1997). Paraguay El Niño Fl
Page 171 and 172:
Map 1
Page 173 and 174:
Table 2: Human Development - Rankin
Page 175 and 176:
Table 4: Exports per Capita (2000 c
Page 177 and 178:
Figure 1: Human Development Indicat
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