the challenges facing landlocked developing countries: a case study ...

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now make a significant detour via Tiraspol on small and poorly-maintained roads (Williams and Wildman 2001). Rail Moldova’s rail network includes 1,140 km of tracks and forms the principal means of transporting cargo, accounting for 95% of transborder shipments (US Embassy Chisinau 2001). Like the road network, the rail network suffers from dilapidated infrastructure, the Transdniestr conflict and design challenges due to its former role in the Soviet economy. Links with Romania are made difficult by the fact that the Moldovan railway network uses the wider Soviet gauge standard, implying that every carriage needs to be transferred onto a different rolling stock – a costly procedure that can take several days for cargo trains. Moreover, reflecting the geopolitical tensions of the regions, Russia has occasionally wielded its power by threatening to blockade Moldova’s rail system (Economist 2000). Ports/Waterways Since Moldova’s primary trading partners are still Russia and the countries of the former CIS, which account for over 50% of total exports, coastal ports play a somewhat limited role in trade. With the recent development of inland waterways, including the construction of facilities at Giurgioulesti on the Danube, however, the importance of the Romanian ports will increase significantly. One of the main purposes of constructions along the river is to facilitate oil import from non-CIS countries to reduce Moldova’s dependence on Russian primary energy sources. POLITICAL RELATIONS The geopolitical tensions that have marked Moldova’s short history have had severe effects on its trade costs. Initially belonging to Romania in the 19 th and early 20 th centuries, and then the USSR as of 1940, Moldova did not gain its independence until 1991. Shortly thereafter, bitter ethnic tensions erupted into civil war in 1992, with the Russian and Ukrainian ethnically dominated Transdniestr region declaring its independence. The civil war had a polarizing effect on Moldova’s neighbors, with the Russian army supplying arms to the Transdniestr separatists while Romania provided military support for Moldova. While a cease-fire was negotiated in 1992, tensions persist and have weakened Moldova’s relations with both Russia and Ukraine. - 91 -
MONGOLIA As the landlocked country with the largest area and lowest population density 32 , Mongolian trade is significantly hindered by the distances required to travel within the country. This problem is exacerbated by the lack of good infrastructure: Mongolia has only one significant highway and the state of most roads are poor. While nearly half of Mongolia’s exports go to China, an overwhelming portion of the other half go overseas to the United States. For these exports, transit routes through Russia (to St Petersburg, Vladivostok, Nakhoda or Vostochny) and China (to Tianjin) are used and are almost without exception by rail. Transit infrastructure levels are reasonable although a diversification of modes to facilitate competition between road and rail would be advantageous. Mongolia’s relations with Russia and China are reasonably good and improving. BASIC INFORMATION HDI Rank: 113 GDP per capita 2000 (PPP$): $1,783 Exports per capita 2000 (current USD): $265 Distance to port: 1,693km Transport cost ratio (1999): 0.16 Neighbors: China, Russia Primary transit countries: China, Russia TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While Mongolia has significant road coverage on an absolute scale, the development of the road network is limited relative to the needs of the country. Roads are largely unpaved and of poor quality (Canning 1998), leading to the dual problems of long transport times and the significant damage to goods. 33 On the positive side, the government is making efforts to upgrade roads, largely through external aid. A total of $US250m in development assistance was committed to improving transport infrastructure between 1990-99 (Stone 2001). Construction of an east-west arterial road began in 2001. Although roads are not used for transit through China nor Russia, there is potential for a road route through to Tianjin (China). Currently the main obstacle to using such a road Main trading partners (2001): Imports: Russia (35%), China (20%), Exports: China (48%), US (31%) Primary Exports: Copper, gold, cashmere Domestic Roads: poor Transit Country Roads: fair Domestic Rails: Transit Country Rails: route is due to regulatory barriers: Mongolian, Russian and Chinese trucks have not been able to operate within each other’s territory (United Nations General Assembly 2000). Such regulations, however, are showing signs of easing: a protocol was signed with Russia to enable the transport of passengers by road in either territory without taxes or fees (UNCTAD 1999a). Negotiations are currently underway to allow the right of transit for Mongolian, fair fair Transit Country Ports: good Neighboring Civil Conflict: low Relations w/ Neighbors: good 32 Mongolia has a land area of 1,566,500 sq km and population density of 1.5 persons/sq km. Botswana is the second most sparsely populated with 2.7 persons/km 2 (WDI 2002) 33 Drivers also suffer from limited supplies of fuel (EIU 2001). - 92 -
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THE CHALLENGES FACING LANDLOCKED DE
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to link to global markets. In doing
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TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
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First, landlocked countries are dep
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together a wide variety of sources,
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infrastructure. In these cases the
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1.2.3. VULNERABILITY TO CIVIL CONFL
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the Central African Republic - Came
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1.3 INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1
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• The southern African landlocked
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PART 2: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES - 18 -
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Internal transport networks in the
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Ports Although Botswana’s geograp
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POLITICAL RELATIONS Lesotho’s int
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elatively better quality than most
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SWAZILAND Despite being landlocked,
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ZAMBIA While Zambia shares its bord
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Relations with South Africa have be
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Zimbabwe’s extensive rail network
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TRANSIT ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA The land
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UGANDA Uganda’s location allows i
Page 45 and 46: POLITICAL RELATIONS The formation o
Page 47 and 48: section on Uganda. The Central Corr
Page 49 and 50: BURUNDI In addition to lying over 1
Page 51 and 52: In 1996, after Major Pierre Buyoya
Page 53 and 54: Recognizing the dramatic effects th
Page 55 and 56: AFRICA - WESTERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF
Page 57 and 58: of transit. In fact, the landlocked
Page 59 and 60: only hindering normal road traffic
Page 61 and 62: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC With only
Page 63 and 64: Relations with the eastern neighbor
Page 65 and 66: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While
Page 67 and 68: MALI Upon declaring independence in
Page 69 and 70: Finally, and most importantly for M
Page 71 and 72: TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Road
Page 73 and 74: ASIA - CENTRAL TRANSIT ROUTES OF CE
Page 75 and 76: TRANSIT ROUTES OF MONGOLIA As part
Page 77 and 78: AFGHANISTAN Two decades of war, har
Page 79 and 80: Afghanistan, the first by an Irania
Page 81 and 82: Iran, Pakistan and Turkey constrain
Page 83 and 84: KYRGYZSTAN Over 3600 km from the ne
Page 85 and 86: POLITICAL RELATIONS Generally recog
Page 87 and 88: The country’s two major highways,
Page 89 and 90: TURKMENISTAN With direct access to
Page 91 and 92: Ports and Waterways Turkmenistan ha
Page 93 and 94: Domestic transport is hampered by t
Page 95: MOLDOVA Although the former Soviet
Page 99 and 100: CAUCASUS TRANSIT ROUTES OF THE CAUC
Page 101 and 102: ARMENIA While Armenia’s central g
Page 103 and 104: With the closure of the Turkish and
Page 105 and 106: worse (World Bank 2000). In fact, w
Page 107 and 108: ASIA - SOUTH & SOUTH-EAST TRANSIT R
Page 109 and 110: With the exception of western Afric
Page 111 and 112: and exports pass through the port p
Page 113 and 114: Khai (at the Thai-Laos border) to t
Page 115 and 116: NEPAL Due to the Himalayan range to
Page 117 and 118: More recently, India delayed the au
Page 119 and 120: links to the railways of Argentina,
Page 121 and 122: developing the nation’s road infr
Page 123 and 124: PARAGUAY Dependent primarily on tra
Page 125 and 126: BOPS Break Bulk CAN CAR CEEAC/ECCAS
Page 127 and 128: GENERAL ADB (2002). Annual Report 2
Page 129 and 130: United Nations General Assembly (20
Page 131 and 132: BOTSWANA CountryWatch (2003). Botsw
Page 133 and 134: EIU (2002). Malawi Country Profile
Page 135 and 136: ZAMBIA Chikoti, V. (?). Overview of
Page 137 and 138: AFRICA - CENTRAL AND EASTERN BURUND
Page 139 and 140: EIU (2002). Ethiopia Country Report
Page 141 and 142: Mutumba-Lule, A. (2001). 17 Firms V
Page 143 and 144: - 138 -
Page 145 and 146: Jean-Bertin, O. (2002). Burkina Fas
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Evlo, K. (1995). Transit Transport
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ASIA - CENTRAL United Nations (1994
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UNESCAP (2002). Afghanistan: Status
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EIU (2001). Railways in Kyrgyz Repu
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Spiegel Online (2002). Moldawien, S
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USDA FSA (2002). Tajikistan Shippin
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CAUCASUS ARMENIA Armenia Foreign Mi
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World Bank (2000). Project Appraisa
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World Audit (2001). World Democracy
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MONGOLIA Canning, D. (1998). A Data
Page 167 and 168:
WDI (2002). World Development Indic
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UN DHA (1997). Paraguay El Niño Fl
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Map 1
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Table 2: Human Development - Rankin
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Table 4: Exports per Capita (2000 c
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Figure 1: Human Development Indicat
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