the challenges facing landlocked developing countries: a case study ...

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Mali’s domestic transport system, consisting largely of the road network, is considered to be relatively poor, even by the standards of the region, resulting in inflated transport costs. 24 Its road density of 0.01 km of road/km 2 remains one of the lowest in Western Africa and is the lowest amongst all landlocked countries. Moreover, maintenance backlogs and insufficient resources continue to contribute to further deterioration. Internal delays in transport are acutely felt in Mali as the economy is agriculturally based. Perishables such as mangoes, tomatoes, and oranges can often spoil as a result of excessive delays. A recent World Bank (2002) study estimates that US$7-8m is needed annually for road maintenance. This is approximately US$3m more than the current expenditure of US$4.6 million a year. Rail Mali’s most important rail corridor from Bamako to Dakar is in poor condition. As is common in the region, recent deteriorations in the rail system have shifted trade towards the road network: from 1993-1999 the market share of the railway fell by nearly 50%. Both the rails and the rolling stock are old, and maintenance is inadequate. (Evlo 1995). The governments of Mali and Senegal, however, have made recent attempts to improve the efficiency and commercialize the rail system, including an agreement to transfer the rail services to a private operator. Ports/Waterways Mali trades primarily through the ports of Dakar and Abidjan, which are both in good physical condition. As in the case of Burkina Faso, due to the low trade volume, Mali does not fully utilize its exclusive port facilities (both warehousing and other physical capabilities) at Dakar or Abidjan (Evlo 1995). However, for the small amount of trade that does use the port, there are some complaints about the cargo handling and stowage services at Dakar. Before the current crisis in Cote d’Ivoire, most of Burkina Faso’s exports left from the port of Abidjan, since it is geographically closer to the center of Mali’s cotton production, while most imports entered from Dakar which is considered to have less cumbersome import customs procedures. River transport in Mali is minimal since it is highly dependent on the level of rains and limited to only a few months of the year. POLITICAL RELATIONS The primary problems facing Malian transit trade are the ongoing political crises and civil wars of its neighbors. Each of Mali’s coastal neighbors has been engaged in some form of violent civil conflict in the last decade, often making transport routes unusable: Togo was devastated by violent political protests and deep internal conflict in the early 1990s; Algeria was involved in a macabre civil war for much of the decade; Ghana suffered from significant ethnic violence in 1993-1994; Sierra Leone’s ten year civil war has just recently come to a tenuous settlement; Guinea has been stricken by a series of coups and rebel wars; and Liberia has spent most of the last decade in violent civil wars which have threatened to spillover into neighboring countries, thus jeopardizing regional stability even further. 24 The World Bank (2002) estimates that transport costs account for 20-30% of the total cost for Mali’s most essential products. - 63 -
Finally, and most importantly for Mali, Cote d’Ivoire, a regional paradigm of stability, has recently fallen into a devastating political crisis which continues to deepen and has rendered Mali’s most important corridor to the sea effectively impassable. Given that 80% of Malian imports pass through Cote d’Ivoire, an increase in the Malian price level is expected. Shortages of basic necessities and significant increases in the prices of consumer products are already being reported although no official data are available. The local press has estimated “that 8m tons of imports, mainly rice, sugar and construction materials, were blocked in the port of Abidjan after the outbreak of civil unrest” (EIU 2002). In addition, Cote D’Ivoire has traditionally been the primary source of imports for Mali, making the effects of the current crisis on Mali even more severe. Relations with Mauritania are tense and have suffered from deep-seated resentment between black Malians, and Mauritanian Arabs and Tuareg. 25 Moreover, a border dispute with Burkina Faso in 1985 erupted into armed violence and has led to a legacy of strained relations between the two countries. Mali is a member of several regional trade agreements including the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Franc Zone, Union economique et monetaire oustafricaine (UEMOA), and the Comite inter-Etats de lutte contre la secheresse ay Sahel (CILSS). It is has a relatively open trade regime compared to its neighbors and has been in compliance with the tariff reductions adopted by the UEMOA. Moreover, Mali has not implemented any of the safeguard measures (i.e. antidumping tariffs, decreasing protection tax) used by several other countries of the UEMOA (IMF 2002). Mali is also a member of the WTO, and receives preferential access to developed markets under the Generalised System of Preferences. 25 Mauritania does not have diplomatic relations with Senegal, an ally to Mali. - 64 -
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THE CHALLENGES FACING LANDLOCKED DE
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to link to global markets. In doing
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TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
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First, landlocked countries are dep
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together a wide variety of sources,
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infrastructure. In these cases the
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1.2.3. VULNERABILITY TO CIVIL CONFL
Page 17 and 18: the Central African Republic - Came
Page 19 and 20: 1.3 INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1
Page 21 and 22: • The southern African landlocked
Page 23 and 24: PART 2: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES - 18 -
Page 25 and 26: Internal transport networks in the
Page 27 and 28: Ports Although Botswana’s geograp
Page 29 and 30: POLITICAL RELATIONS Lesotho’s int
Page 31 and 32: elatively better quality than most
Page 33 and 34: SWAZILAND Despite being landlocked,
Page 35 and 36: ZAMBIA While Zambia shares its bord
Page 37 and 38: Relations with South Africa have be
Page 39 and 40: Zimbabwe’s extensive rail network
Page 41 and 42: TRANSIT ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA The land
Page 43 and 44: UGANDA Uganda’s location allows i
Page 45 and 46: POLITICAL RELATIONS The formation o
Page 47 and 48: section on Uganda. The Central Corr
Page 49 and 50: BURUNDI In addition to lying over 1
Page 51 and 52: In 1996, after Major Pierre Buyoya
Page 53 and 54: Recognizing the dramatic effects th
Page 55 and 56: AFRICA - WESTERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF
Page 57 and 58: of transit. In fact, the landlocked
Page 59 and 60: only hindering normal road traffic
Page 61 and 62: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC With only
Page 63 and 64: Relations with the eastern neighbor
Page 65 and 66: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While
Page 67: MALI Upon declaring independence in
Page 71 and 72: TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Road
Page 73 and 74: ASIA - CENTRAL TRANSIT ROUTES OF CE
Page 75 and 76: TRANSIT ROUTES OF MONGOLIA As part
Page 77 and 78: AFGHANISTAN Two decades of war, har
Page 79 and 80: Afghanistan, the first by an Irania
Page 81 and 82: Iran, Pakistan and Turkey constrain
Page 83 and 84: KYRGYZSTAN Over 3600 km from the ne
Page 85 and 86: POLITICAL RELATIONS Generally recog
Page 87 and 88: The country’s two major highways,
Page 89 and 90: TURKMENISTAN With direct access to
Page 91 and 92: Ports and Waterways Turkmenistan ha
Page 93 and 94: Domestic transport is hampered by t
Page 95 and 96: MOLDOVA Although the former Soviet
Page 97 and 98: MONGOLIA As the landlocked country
Page 99 and 100: CAUCASUS TRANSIT ROUTES OF THE CAUC
Page 101 and 102: ARMENIA While Armenia’s central g
Page 103 and 104: With the closure of the Turkish and
Page 105 and 106: worse (World Bank 2000). In fact, w
Page 107 and 108: ASIA - SOUTH & SOUTH-EAST TRANSIT R
Page 109 and 110: With the exception of western Afric
Page 111 and 112: and exports pass through the port p
Page 113 and 114: Khai (at the Thai-Laos border) to t
Page 115 and 116: NEPAL Due to the Himalayan range to
Page 117 and 118: More recently, India delayed the au
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links to the railways of Argentina,
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developing the nation’s road infr
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PARAGUAY Dependent primarily on tra
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BOPS Break Bulk CAN CAR CEEAC/ECCAS
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GENERAL ADB (2002). Annual Report 2
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United Nations General Assembly (20
Page 131 and 132:
BOTSWANA CountryWatch (2003). Botsw
Page 133 and 134:
EIU (2002). Malawi Country Profile
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ZAMBIA Chikoti, V. (?). Overview of
Page 137 and 138:
AFRICA - CENTRAL AND EASTERN BURUND
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EIU (2002). Ethiopia Country Report
Page 141 and 142:
Mutumba-Lule, A. (2001). 17 Firms V
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- 138 -
Page 145 and 146:
Jean-Bertin, O. (2002). Burkina Fas
Page 147 and 148:
Evlo, K. (1995). Transit Transport
Page 149 and 150:
ASIA - CENTRAL United Nations (1994
Page 151 and 152:
UNESCAP (2002). Afghanistan: Status
Page 153 and 154:
EIU (2001). Railways in Kyrgyz Repu
Page 155 and 156:
Spiegel Online (2002). Moldawien, S
Page 157 and 158:
USDA FSA (2002). Tajikistan Shippin
Page 159 and 160:
CAUCASUS ARMENIA Armenia Foreign Mi
Page 161 and 162:
World Bank (2000). Project Appraisa
Page 163 and 164:
World Audit (2001). World Democracy
Page 165 and 166:
MONGOLIA Canning, D. (1998). A Data
Page 167 and 168:
WDI (2002). World Development Indic
Page 169 and 170:
UN DHA (1997). Paraguay El Niño Fl
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Map 1
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Table 2: Human Development - Rankin
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Table 4: Exports per Capita (2000 c
Page 177 and 178:
Figure 1: Human Development Indicat
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