the challenges facing landlocked developing countries: a case study ...

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ZIMBABWE For nearly fifty years, Zimbabwe’s trade and transit patterns have largely been a product of the local and surrounding political, rather than infrastructural, conditions. When Zimbabwe, then known as Southern Rhodesia, declared independence in 1965, the resultant international sanctions caused it to shift much of its trade towards South Africa. Around the same time it closed its border to Zambia. In 1975, when Mozambique received independence, Zimbabwe lost access to the ports of Beira and Maputo (Mozambique) and was forced to divert most of its trade to the South African corridors. When the new government was installed in 1980, renaming Southern Rhodesia as Zimbabwe, the Mozambican corridors were reopened but remained virtually impassable because of the ongoing Mozambican civil war. More recently during the apartheid era, the South African government regularly threatened to close its borders to Zimbabwe. Today, Zimbabwe faces increasing political and economic isolation resulting from the controversial rule of Rubert Mugabe. While Zimbabwe continues to face great political challenges, it boasts one of the best domestic transport systems in the region. However, its most important corridor, to Beira, has suffered considerably from the recent Mozambican civil war. Nonetheless, the Mozambican ports remain of primary importance, having accounting for 82% of Zimbabwe’s total trade as of 1996. The South African ports of Durban, Port Elizabeth, and Capetown accounted for the remaining 18% (Pedersen 2002). TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE BASIC INFORMATION HDI Rank: 128 GDP per capita 2000 (PPP$): $2,635 Exports per capita 2000 (current USD): $178 Distance to port: 464km Transport cost ratio (1994): 0.15 Neighbors: Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia Primary transit countries: Mozambique, South Africa Main trading partners (2001): Imports: South Africa (46%) DRC (6%) Exports: United Kingdom (7%) Germany (7%) Primary Exports (2000): Tobacco (26%) Gold (13%) Domestic Roads: good Transit Country Roads: fair Domestic Rails: Transit Country Rails: Transit Country Ports: good fair fair Road The primary road corridors that Zimbabwe depends on, through South Africa and Mozambique, have historically been of good quality, although the recent civil war in Mozambique caused significant destruction of the country’s main roads. Zimbabwe’s own domestic trunk road network is in good condition and provides adequate access to the region’s primary corridors. Most of these main roads were inherited from Southern Rhodesia’s government which actively promoted road development. The rural road network, however, was considerably less developed at the time of independence, but has benefited from significant improvements in the latter half of the 1990s. Rail Neighboring Civil Conflict: moderate Relations w/ Neighbors: fair - 33 -
Zimbabwe’s extensive rail network, which serves both domestic and international transport, has historically been considered one of the most efficient in Sub-Saharan Africa and has typically been the predominant mode of transit. The 1985 national transport study noted that “NRZ’s [National Railways of Zimbabwe] tracks are generally in excellent or good conditions.” (SWECO 1985). As late as 1990 the railways accounted for all of Zimbabwe’s trade through Mozambique, and 80% through the South African ports (Gleave 1992). Recently, however, the railways have lost a significant share of their transit traffic to the roads systems, owing largely to a decrease in relative efficiency and increases in cost. Ports An increasing share of Zimbabwean trade is being shipped through the South African ports (most notably Durban) despite lower simple transport costs to the Mozambican ports of Beira and Maputo. The shift is largely seen as a product of the improved efficiency of the South African ports associated with economies of scale (i.e. container shipping). The South African corridors are also considered more reliable and provide more regular services than the Mozambican corridors. Overall, the ports serving Zimbabwe are operating relatively efficiently. POLITICAL RELATIONS While Zimbabwe has not been subject to the violent border clashes common in western and eastern Africa, it has recently suffered from increased regional tensions and political isolation in the SADC. The deteriorating relations can be largely attributed to the regime of President Robert Mugabe, who has received international criticism not only from the SADC and the Commonwealth but also from the EU and US governments. The Commonwealth has even suspended Zimbabwe. One of the primary sources of increased tension is Zimbabwe’s ongoing military involvement in the war in the DRC, despite pleas from its neighbors to withdraw. Moreover, personal disagreements between Mr. Mugabe and South African president Thabo Mbeki have weakened Zimbabwe’s relations with South Africa. These relations have been further strained over several trade disputes. (EIU 2002). Zimbabwe’s relationship with Botswana has been strained over the recently constructed (1999) Bulawayo-Beitbridge railway link that allows Zimbabwe to transport freight more directly and efficiently to South African ports and bypass Botswana railways. In contrast, Botswanan freight destined for the northern tier of Southern African countries still requires passage on Zimbabwean railways. Zimbabwe has further aggravated the tension caused by this disparity by requiring that any freight passing through Zimbabwe from third countries such as Zambia use this Bulawayo to Beitbridge route, thereby limiting transit freight on Botswanan rails. - 34 -
Page 1 and 2: THE CHALLENGES FACING LANDLOCKED DE
Page 3 and 4: to link to global markets. In doing
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Page 7 and 8: PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Page 9 and 10: First, landlocked countries are dep
Page 11 and 12: together a wide variety of sources,
Page 13 and 14: infrastructure. In these cases the
Page 15 and 16: 1.2.3. VULNERABILITY TO CIVIL CONFL
Page 17 and 18: the Central African Republic - Came
Page 19 and 20: 1.3 INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1
Page 21 and 22: • The southern African landlocked
Page 23 and 24: PART 2: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES - 18 -
Page 25 and 26: Internal transport networks in the
Page 27 and 28: Ports Although Botswana’s geograp
Page 29 and 30: POLITICAL RELATIONS Lesotho’s int
Page 31 and 32: elatively better quality than most
Page 33 and 34: SWAZILAND Despite being landlocked,
Page 35 and 36: ZAMBIA While Zambia shares its bord
Page 37: Relations with South Africa have be
Page 41 and 42: TRANSIT ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA The land
Page 43 and 44: UGANDA Uganda’s location allows i
Page 45 and 46: POLITICAL RELATIONS The formation o
Page 47 and 48: section on Uganda. The Central Corr
Page 49 and 50: BURUNDI In addition to lying over 1
Page 51 and 52: In 1996, after Major Pierre Buyoya
Page 53 and 54: Recognizing the dramatic effects th
Page 55 and 56: AFRICA - WESTERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF
Page 57 and 58: of transit. In fact, the landlocked
Page 59 and 60: only hindering normal road traffic
Page 61 and 62: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC With only
Page 63 and 64: Relations with the eastern neighbor
Page 65 and 66: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While
Page 67 and 68: MALI Upon declaring independence in
Page 69 and 70: Finally, and most importantly for M
Page 71 and 72: TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Road
Page 73 and 74: ASIA - CENTRAL TRANSIT ROUTES OF CE
Page 75 and 76: TRANSIT ROUTES OF MONGOLIA As part
Page 77 and 78: AFGHANISTAN Two decades of war, har
Page 79 and 80: Afghanistan, the first by an Irania
Page 81 and 82: Iran, Pakistan and Turkey constrain
Page 83 and 84: KYRGYZSTAN Over 3600 km from the ne
Page 85 and 86: POLITICAL RELATIONS Generally recog
Page 87 and 88: The country’s two major highways,
Page 89 and 90:
TURKMENISTAN With direct access to
Page 91 and 92:
Ports and Waterways Turkmenistan ha
Page 93 and 94:
Domestic transport is hampered by t
Page 95 and 96:
MOLDOVA Although the former Soviet
Page 97 and 98:
MONGOLIA As the landlocked country
Page 99 and 100:
CAUCASUS TRANSIT ROUTES OF THE CAUC
Page 101 and 102:
ARMENIA While Armenia’s central g
Page 103 and 104:
With the closure of the Turkish and
Page 105 and 106:
worse (World Bank 2000). In fact, w
Page 107 and 108:
ASIA - SOUTH & SOUTH-EAST TRANSIT R
Page 109 and 110:
With the exception of western Afric
Page 111 and 112:
and exports pass through the port p
Page 113 and 114:
Khai (at the Thai-Laos border) to t
Page 115 and 116:
NEPAL Due to the Himalayan range to
Page 117 and 118:
More recently, India delayed the au
Page 119 and 120:
links to the railways of Argentina,
Page 121 and 122:
developing the nation’s road infr
Page 123 and 124:
PARAGUAY Dependent primarily on tra
Page 125 and 126:
BOPS Break Bulk CAN CAR CEEAC/ECCAS
Page 127 and 128:
GENERAL ADB (2002). Annual Report 2
Page 129 and 130:
United Nations General Assembly (20
Page 131 and 132:
BOTSWANA CountryWatch (2003). Botsw
Page 133 and 134:
EIU (2002). Malawi Country Profile
Page 135 and 136:
ZAMBIA Chikoti, V. (?). Overview of
Page 137 and 138:
AFRICA - CENTRAL AND EASTERN BURUND
Page 139 and 140:
EIU (2002). Ethiopia Country Report
Page 141 and 142:
Mutumba-Lule, A. (2001). 17 Firms V
Page 143 and 144:
- 138 -
Page 145 and 146:
Jean-Bertin, O. (2002). Burkina Fas
Page 147 and 148:
Evlo, K. (1995). Transit Transport
Page 149 and 150:
ASIA - CENTRAL United Nations (1994
Page 151 and 152:
UNESCAP (2002). Afghanistan: Status
Page 153 and 154:
EIU (2001). Railways in Kyrgyz Repu
Page 155 and 156:
Spiegel Online (2002). Moldawien, S
Page 157 and 158:
USDA FSA (2002). Tajikistan Shippin
Page 159 and 160:
CAUCASUS ARMENIA Armenia Foreign Mi
Page 161 and 162:
World Bank (2000). Project Appraisa
Page 163 and 164:
World Audit (2001). World Democracy
Page 165 and 166:
MONGOLIA Canning, D. (1998). A Data
Page 167 and 168:
WDI (2002). World Development Indic
Page 169 and 170:
UN DHA (1997). Paraguay El Niño Fl
Page 171 and 172:
Map 1
Page 173 and 174:
Table 2: Human Development - Rankin
Page 175 and 176:
Table 4: Exports per Capita (2000 c
Page 177 and 178:
Figure 1: Human Development Indicat
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