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oil products. Today it provides connections with Iran, Transcaucasia and, via the rivers and canals of Russia, with the Black and Baltic seas (KIPC 2000). The latter routes can only be used by barges. The closest ports on the high seas are on the Russian and Georgian Black Sea coasts. Kazakh barges can enter the Black Sea through the Volga-Don canal, but this is also a Russian sovereign waterway. POLITICAL RELATIONS After having had several border disputes with other former Soviet Republics after independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has now settled these and maintains strong relations with its neighbors. The country has also settled its claims on the Caspian with Russia and Azerbaijan. Kazakhstan has so far not been drawn into the looming conflict between Azerbaijan and Iran over claims to the Caspian. Long-serving President Nursultan Nazarbayev is keen on regional cooperation schemes as building blocks for the promotion of free trade. However, recent initiatives such as the Eurasian Economic Community (EEC) have so far not significantly enhanced intra-regional trade. - 77 -
KYRGYZSTAN Over 3600 km from the nearest open seas port, Kyrgyzstan is the second most remote of all landlocked countries (after Kazakhstan). Its extreme average elevation of 2,750m, with 40% of its territory over 3,000m, further exacerbates the transit challenges it faces. Moreover, ongoing regional instability and border disputes with neighboring China, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan have resulted in sporadic border closures, and have prevented the effective implementation of any multilateral agreements. And while it is slowly changing, Kyrgyzstan’s transportation network is primarily the remnant of the Soviet system, and does not reflect the changing nature of the Kyrgyz economy and its trade patterns. There are six international routes from Kyrgyzstan. The most important of these are two routes to Kazakhstan and one to Uzbekistan. Terrain and mediocre infrastructure levels, however, limit the efficiency of these routes. Corridors to China and Tajikistan are very difficult to traverse and are closed in winter. To deal with these transit trade challenges, Kyrgyzstan has avidly pursued a democratized liberal market economy, and boasts one of the most liberal trade regimes amongst the former Soviet states. As of December 2002, Kyrgyzstan was still the only CIS state to gain accession into the WTO. Kyrgyzstan has also been relatively successful in diversifying its economy –its newly developed gold mining sector as well as its services sector now contribute 30% of GDP. Its dependence on fuel imports, however, has been a significant constraint to development. BASIC INFORMATION HDI Rank: 102 GDP per capita 2000 (PPP$): $2,711 Exports per capita 2000 (current USD): $117 Distance to port: Transport cost ratio: 0.13 3,600km Neighbors: China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan Primary transit neighbors: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan Main trading partners: Imports: Russia (18%), Kazakhstan (18%) Exports: Switzerland (26%), Germany (20%) Primary Exports: Non-ferrous metallurgy (47%) Electricity (16%) Domestic Roads: poor Transit Country Roads: poor Domestic Rails: Transit Country Rails: poor fair Transit Country Ports: good TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Neighboring Civil Conflict: moderate Relations w/ Neighbors: fair Road While the Asian Highway connects Kyrgyzstan to neighboring Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and China, most of these international corridors have presented significant challenges. First, the primary road to Tajikistan is not an all weather route, and is often rendered impassable during the harsh winter months of November- February. Transit is further complicated by tensions with Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and disputed boundaries between the countries. From October-December 2002 Tajikistan erected an ad hoc border post to harass Kyrgyz travelers. In retaliation, Kyrgyzstan set up a similar post. - 78 -
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THE CHALLENGES FACING LANDLOCKED DE
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to link to global markets. In doing
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TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
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First, landlocked countries are dep
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together a wide variety of sources,
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infrastructure. In these cases the
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1.2.3. VULNERABILITY TO CIVIL CONFL
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the Central African Republic - Came
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1.3 INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1
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• The southern African landlocked
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PART 2: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES - 18 -
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Internal transport networks in the
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Ports Although Botswana’s geograp
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POLITICAL RELATIONS Lesotho’s int
Page 31 and 32: elatively better quality than most
Page 33 and 34: SWAZILAND Despite being landlocked,
Page 35 and 36: ZAMBIA While Zambia shares its bord
Page 37 and 38: Relations with South Africa have be
Page 39 and 40: Zimbabwe’s extensive rail network
Page 41 and 42: TRANSIT ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA The land
Page 43 and 44: UGANDA Uganda’s location allows i
Page 45 and 46: POLITICAL RELATIONS The formation o
Page 47 and 48: section on Uganda. The Central Corr
Page 49 and 50: BURUNDI In addition to lying over 1
Page 51 and 52: In 1996, after Major Pierre Buyoya
Page 53 and 54: Recognizing the dramatic effects th
Page 55 and 56: AFRICA - WESTERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF
Page 57 and 58: of transit. In fact, the landlocked
Page 59 and 60: only hindering normal road traffic
Page 61 and 62: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC With only
Page 63 and 64: Relations with the eastern neighbor
Page 65 and 66: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While
Page 67 and 68: MALI Upon declaring independence in
Page 69 and 70: Finally, and most importantly for M
Page 71 and 72: TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Road
Page 73 and 74: ASIA - CENTRAL TRANSIT ROUTES OF CE
Page 75 and 76: TRANSIT ROUTES OF MONGOLIA As part
Page 77 and 78: AFGHANISTAN Two decades of war, har
Page 79 and 80: Afghanistan, the first by an Irania
Page 81: Iran, Pakistan and Turkey constrain
Page 85 and 86: POLITICAL RELATIONS Generally recog
Page 87 and 88: The country’s two major highways,
Page 89 and 90: TURKMENISTAN With direct access to
Page 91 and 92: Ports and Waterways Turkmenistan ha
Page 93 and 94: Domestic transport is hampered by t
Page 95 and 96: MOLDOVA Although the former Soviet
Page 97 and 98: MONGOLIA As the landlocked country
Page 99 and 100: CAUCASUS TRANSIT ROUTES OF THE CAUC
Page 101 and 102: ARMENIA While Armenia’s central g
Page 103 and 104: With the closure of the Turkish and
Page 105 and 106: worse (World Bank 2000). In fact, w
Page 107 and 108: ASIA - SOUTH & SOUTH-EAST TRANSIT R
Page 109 and 110: With the exception of western Afric
Page 111 and 112: and exports pass through the port p
Page 113 and 114: Khai (at the Thai-Laos border) to t
Page 115 and 116: NEPAL Due to the Himalayan range to
Page 117 and 118: More recently, India delayed the au
Page 119 and 120: links to the railways of Argentina,
Page 121 and 122: developing the nation’s road infr
Page 123 and 124: PARAGUAY Dependent primarily on tra
Page 125 and 126: BOPS Break Bulk CAN CAR CEEAC/ECCAS
Page 127 and 128: GENERAL ADB (2002). Annual Report 2
Page 129 and 130: United Nations General Assembly (20
Page 131 and 132: BOTSWANA CountryWatch (2003). Botsw
Page 133 and 134:
EIU (2002). Malawi Country Profile
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ZAMBIA Chikoti, V. (?). Overview of
Page 137 and 138:
AFRICA - CENTRAL AND EASTERN BURUND
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EIU (2002). Ethiopia Country Report
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Mutumba-Lule, A. (2001). 17 Firms V
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Page 145 and 146:
Jean-Bertin, O. (2002). Burkina Fas
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Evlo, K. (1995). Transit Transport
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ASIA - CENTRAL United Nations (1994
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UNESCAP (2002). Afghanistan: Status
Page 153 and 154:
EIU (2001). Railways in Kyrgyz Repu
Page 155 and 156:
Spiegel Online (2002). Moldawien, S
Page 157 and 158:
USDA FSA (2002). Tajikistan Shippin
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CAUCASUS ARMENIA Armenia Foreign Mi
Page 161 and 162:
World Bank (2000). Project Appraisa
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World Audit (2001). World Democracy
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MONGOLIA Canning, D. (1998). A Data
Page 167 and 168:
WDI (2002). World Development Indic
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UN DHA (1997). Paraguay El Niño Fl
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Map 1
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Table 2: Human Development - Rankin
Page 175 and 176:
Table 4: Exports per Capita (2000 c
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Figure 1: Human Development Indicat
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