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Second, the border with Uzbekistan suffers from similar geopolitical disputes, as boundaries are fiercely disputed. Uzbekistan also defends its border with particularly stringent border regulations, and sometimes even physical boundaries. In one recent case, Uzbekistan is reported to have placed cement blocks on a bridge at the Karu-Su border crossing. Finally, transit to China has the option of passing through two routes: either the tortuous Torugart Pass, which at 3900m presents serious physical obstacles, or the Irkeshtam crossing, which is new and presents other difficulties. As of January 2002, the border was still closed to vehicular traffic; freight needed to be unloaded and reloaded at the border. Such restrictions are largely a product of Kyrgyzstan’s failure to develop adequate border facilities, although the Chinese have already built a modern border facility. Internal transport in Kyrgyzstan faces the same difficulties as international transport: poor infrastructure, geographic constraints, and geopolitical difficulties. The 600 km journey between the countries’ two main cities, Bishkek and Osh, for example, is reported to take 16 hours. Mountains divide the country into distinct north-south regions, severely limiting transport between the two. Moreover, the presence of surrounding countries’ enclaves in Kyrgyzstan often requires internal transport to pass through international borders subject to the same strict control as the other borders. Kyrgyzstan has begun road rehabilitation projects with assistance from international donor agencies. Attempts to streamline regional border crossings have faltered as a result of ongoing geopolitical tensions and corruption. The TIR Carnet, for example, which allows freight to journey to its final destination (often Russia) without undergoing intermediate customs procedures, was suspended in Russia on December 24, 2002. The suspension was levied by the International Road Transport Union in response to Russian customs officials who were using the system as “an effective tool for protecting organized crime.” (FT 2002) Rail Kyrgyzstan’s mountainous terrain makes rail transport particularly difficult. Moreover, the rail network was constructed during the Soviet era and presents two problems: first, the international rail corridors only provide links north through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to Russia, not to China; second, the rail network is not appropriate for the current political boundaries, as domestic transport through Kyrgyzstan now often requires passage through parts of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, complicating internal transport. Both problems are presently being addressed. Kyrgyzstan has recently reached an agreement with China to construct a railway from Fergana (Uzbekistan) to Kashgar (China), which is linked to the Chinese rail network. Plans for an internal north-south railway in Kyrgyzstan are also being discussed. Ports Kyrgyzstan’s freight is mainly shipped from the eastern Black Sea ports. Trade also passes through the northern Baltic Sea ports. These ports do not present any serious constraints to Kyrgyzstan’s freight transit. - 79 -
POLITICAL RELATIONS Generally recognized as a paradigm of internal stability, Kyrgyzstan has actively pursued strong relations with its neighbors and regional CIS countries. It shares the closest political ties with CIS countries and has ambassadors in all CIS capitals. Despite these attempts, however, tensions with neighboring Uzbekistan and Tajikistan persist, stemming largely from disputed boundaries. Kyrgyzstan’s strained relations with Uzbekistan are complicated by the former’s dependence on its larger neighbor for natural gas. Uzbekistan has used this dependence as a weapon to influence Kyrgyz policy: gas supplies were cut off in 1993 when Kyrgyzstan became the first former Soviet republic to introduce its own currency, and again in 1998 when it became the first former Soviet Republic to gain accession into the WTO (Pannier 2001). Moreover, Uzbekistan has ardently defended its borders with strict controls. In 2000, it even erected fences and minefields around border areas. Tajikistan’s civil war has further destabilized much of Kyrgyzstan’s western region and hampered bilateral discussions to reach a border agreement. Cross-border riots and tension is common, believed by most people to be the actions of Tajik separatists (RFE/RL 2003). Despite its immediate border tensions, Kyrgyzstan is developing closer relations with the two regional powers, Russia and China. In July 2000, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev and Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a Declaration on Eternal Friendship, Allied Relations and Partnership between Russia and Kyrgyzstan. Kyrgyz-Sino relations have also witnessed recent signs of improvement, including the joint venture to build a railway from Fergana to Kashgar. In 1999, the two countries signed an agreement resolving a border dispute. - 80 -
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THE CHALLENGES FACING LANDLOCKED DE
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to link to global markets. In doing
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TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
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First, landlocked countries are dep
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together a wide variety of sources,
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infrastructure. In these cases the
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1.2.3. VULNERABILITY TO CIVIL CONFL
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the Central African Republic - Came
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1.3 INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT 1.3.1
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• The southern African landlocked
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PART 2: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES - 18 -
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Internal transport networks in the
Page 27 and 28:
Ports Although Botswana’s geograp
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POLITICAL RELATIONS Lesotho’s int
Page 31 and 32:
elatively better quality than most
Page 33 and 34: SWAZILAND Despite being landlocked,
Page 35 and 36: ZAMBIA While Zambia shares its bord
Page 37 and 38: Relations with South Africa have be
Page 39 and 40: Zimbabwe’s extensive rail network
Page 41 and 42: TRANSIT ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA The land
Page 43 and 44: UGANDA Uganda’s location allows i
Page 45 and 46: POLITICAL RELATIONS The formation o
Page 47 and 48: section on Uganda. The Central Corr
Page 49 and 50: BURUNDI In addition to lying over 1
Page 51 and 52: In 1996, after Major Pierre Buyoya
Page 53 and 54: Recognizing the dramatic effects th
Page 55 and 56: AFRICA - WESTERN TRANSIT ROUTES OF
Page 57 and 58: of transit. In fact, the landlocked
Page 59 and 60: only hindering normal road traffic
Page 61 and 62: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC With only
Page 63 and 64: Relations with the eastern neighbor
Page 65 and 66: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Road While
Page 67 and 68: MALI Upon declaring independence in
Page 69 and 70: Finally, and most importantly for M
Page 71 and 72: TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Road
Page 73 and 74: ASIA - CENTRAL TRANSIT ROUTES OF CE
Page 75 and 76: TRANSIT ROUTES OF MONGOLIA As part
Page 77 and 78: AFGHANISTAN Two decades of war, har
Page 79 and 80: Afghanistan, the first by an Irania
Page 81 and 82: Iran, Pakistan and Turkey constrain
Page 83: KYRGYZSTAN Over 3600 km from the ne
Page 87 and 88: The country’s two major highways,
Page 89 and 90: TURKMENISTAN With direct access to
Page 91 and 92: Ports and Waterways Turkmenistan ha
Page 93 and 94: Domestic transport is hampered by t
Page 95 and 96: MOLDOVA Although the former Soviet
Page 97 and 98: MONGOLIA As the landlocked country
Page 99 and 100: CAUCASUS TRANSIT ROUTES OF THE CAUC
Page 101 and 102: ARMENIA While Armenia’s central g
Page 103 and 104: With the closure of the Turkish and
Page 105 and 106: worse (World Bank 2000). In fact, w
Page 107 and 108: ASIA - SOUTH & SOUTH-EAST TRANSIT R
Page 109 and 110: With the exception of western Afric
Page 111 and 112: and exports pass through the port p
Page 113 and 114: Khai (at the Thai-Laos border) to t
Page 115 and 116: NEPAL Due to the Himalayan range to
Page 117 and 118: More recently, India delayed the au
Page 119 and 120: links to the railways of Argentina,
Page 121 and 122: developing the nation’s road infr
Page 123 and 124: PARAGUAY Dependent primarily on tra
Page 125 and 126: BOPS Break Bulk CAN CAR CEEAC/ECCAS
Page 127 and 128: GENERAL ADB (2002). Annual Report 2
Page 129 and 130: United Nations General Assembly (20
Page 131 and 132: BOTSWANA CountryWatch (2003). Botsw
Page 133 and 134: EIU (2002). Malawi Country Profile
Page 135 and 136:
ZAMBIA Chikoti, V. (?). Overview of
Page 137 and 138:
AFRICA - CENTRAL AND EASTERN BURUND
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EIU (2002). Ethiopia Country Report
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Mutumba-Lule, A. (2001). 17 Firms V
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- 138 -
Page 145 and 146:
Jean-Bertin, O. (2002). Burkina Fas
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Evlo, K. (1995). Transit Transport
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ASIA - CENTRAL United Nations (1994
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UNESCAP (2002). Afghanistan: Status
Page 153 and 154:
EIU (2001). Railways in Kyrgyz Repu
Page 155 and 156:
Spiegel Online (2002). Moldawien, S
Page 157 and 158:
USDA FSA (2002). Tajikistan Shippin
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CAUCASUS ARMENIA Armenia Foreign Mi
Page 161 and 162:
World Bank (2000). Project Appraisa
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World Audit (2001). World Democracy
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MONGOLIA Canning, D. (1998). A Data
Page 167 and 168:
WDI (2002). World Development Indic
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UN DHA (1997). Paraguay El Niño Fl
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Map 1
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Table 2: Human Development - Rankin
Page 175 and 176:
Table 4: Exports per Capita (2000 c
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Figure 1: Human Development Indicat
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