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help an overextended MOE to meet sector goals. Working through the MOE HQ increases the time and uncertainty in meeting expected outcomes, and in some cases appears an inappropriate or ineffective point of entry into a complex system. However, close working relationships between CP and MOE counterparts supported the process of policy development and implementation of new approaches that supports the strengthening of MOE capacities and clarity of MOE guidance leading change in the system. ExTERNAL FORCES AND gLOBAL TRENDS International forces driving Zambia’s reform agenda during the early 1990s included support for EFA, privatization, cost-sharing, and community schools. EFA remained on the agenda through the reform period and likely influenced Levy Mwanawasa’s inclusion of the Free Basic Education reform in his 2002 campaign platform. Toward the mid-1990s—international organizations increasingly supported decentralization and the development of Sector Wide Approaches (SWAps). In the later part of the 1990s, nascent support for assessing quality and supporting literacy through mother tongue instruction gained traction, manifested in the National Assessment of Standards and the Primary Reading Program and the Breakthrough to Literacy models. Initiatives supporting increased harmonization, a greater focus on direct budget support and the initiation of EFA-Fast Track Initiative funding helped shape the landscape of reform activities in the early and mid-2000s. Structural adjustment policies and external debt are explained in a previous section. CONCLUSION The Zambian experience offers an example of gradual strengthening and increasing functionality of a system within the constraining context of highly centralized human resource and management policies and limited resources. The continuity provided by Educating Our Future and the SWAp process of joint planning and implementation created structures and processes supporting the partnership and coordinated work by both the government and multiple donors. Throughout the reform period, donor activities extended the reach of the system, but at times did so in undermined rather than strengthened system capacity development. Implementation of too many activities in the early 2000s diluted MOE focus—the system simply did not have the resources or capacity to scale-up all promising pilots. But the processes and initiatives that subsequently 126 SECTION 2: lESSONS fROM COUNTRY CASE STUdIES
eceived longstanding support from multiple system actors—including donors— have been integrated into the system DNA and become elements that are not a ‘part of the system’, but rather elements that help define the system. One of the most significant reforms of the period, community schools, while drawing on the National Educational Policy for guidance, achieved both continuity and expansion through strong grassroots support that offset initial neglect from the Ministry. With ongoing support from donors, and continued engagement of the MOE on Community School policy issues—sector support to community schools came to be seen as an important as a way to achieve National Education Policy goals. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 127
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The Power of Persistence Education
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table of Contents Acknowledgments F
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generously granted us their time an
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Foreword The United States Agency f
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Executive Summary EQUIP2 Education
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local points of contact. In fact, b
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Namibia has successfully developed
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Sustainability in the context of sy
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• Manage policy engagement and re
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After more than 50 years of develop
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to the point of functional literacy
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An obvious question for donors is
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• Was the investment in education
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A final perspective on ownership, a
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and recipients. The World Bank has
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the term differently. Donors someti
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Country commitment to improving pol
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The importance of these insights, b
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Table: Simple, Complicated, and Com
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Basic principles of systems thinkin
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Among the many aspects of systems t
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EQUIP2 Education Systems Reform Fra
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may or may not be influenced by the
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• There are no magic bullets. Par
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These case studies look at educatio
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El Salvador Egypt Namibia Nicaragua
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eform support during the 1980s and
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system. In the same year, the USAID
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CASE ANALySIS: DIMENSIONS OF REFORM
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increased during this period, parti
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militant groups (at least until 199
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the growing political will and capa
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political will and experience in bo
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EgyPT TIMELINE
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El Salvador: Summary COUNTRy CONTEx
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financing, and ensuring adequate le
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Impact Structurally, the education
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CASE ANALySIS: DIMENSIONS OF REFORM
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2005, USAID assistance further stre
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EDUCO’s success exemplifies a tec
Page 90 and 91: workshop with representatives of bo
Page 92: • The continuing commitment to th
Page 95: El Salvador Time Line Before 1988 1
Page 98 and 99: Strategies Especially in the early
Page 100 and 101: In terms of quality, the impact on
Page 102 and 103: The second aspect is that the profe
Page 104 and 105: • The complex and holistic nature
Page 106 and 107: efforts have been studied closely,
Page 109 and 110: NAMIBIA TIMELINE
Page 112 and 113: Nicaragua: Summary COUNTRy CONTExT
Page 114 and 115: ASP won the support of donor agenci
Page 116 and 117: Nicaragua Education Indicators Indi
Page 118 and 119: Though the strong leadership of Min
Page 120: eform. Starting from the early 1990
Page 123: Nicaragua Time Line Before 1986 198
Page 126 and 127: growth; primary enrollment expanded
Page 128 and 129: accountability and corruption led d
Page 130 and 131: Selected Reform goals, Policy Chang
Page 132 and 133: Increased sector leadership from MO
Page 134 and 135: it have to cope with major governme
Page 136 and 137: management and administration that
Page 138 and 139: the education system and have limit
Page 143 and 144: ZAMBIA TIMELINE
Page 146: 3 summary Findings and Conclusions
Page 149 and 150: In addition to an EFA-inspired emph
Page 151 and 152: from political changes. After 15 ye
Page 153 and 154: ased management, but were limited t
Page 155 and 156: is not necessarily limited to indiv
Page 157 and 158: sector limited the agenda-setting m
Page 159 and 160: and every new government seeks its
Page 161 and 162: 8. USAID and other donors have been
Page 163 and 164: CONCLUSIONS This review of five cou
Page 165 and 166: Ownership It is a central tenet of
Page 167 and 168: actors is a never-ending process. T
Page 169 and 170: was beyond the mandate of the Minis
Page 171 and 172: IMPLICATIONS FOR USAID POLICy AND P
Page 173 and 174: Bibliography general References Alv
Page 175 and 176: UNESCO. 2007. EFA Global Monitoring
Page 177 and 178: Healy, F. & Crouch, L. (2007, Novem
Page 179 and 180: Sidhom, S. & Al-Fustat, A. (2004, J
Page 181 and 182: Crouch, L., J. Gillies, A. Florez.
Page 183 and 184: LLECE, “Conclusiones del estudio
Page 185 and 186: Miller-Grandvaux, Yolande and Karla
Page 188: 1875 Connecticut Ave., NW Washingto
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