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El Salvador: Summary COUNTRy CONTExT In the early 1990s, El Salvador emerged from more than a decade of civil war. Civilian rule that was restored with by incoming ARENA government in 1989 had only limited authority in the ex-conflictive zones until the Peace Accords were formalized in 1992. Prior to the war, education was inequitable, favored the elites and strongly favored the capital city (Marques and Bannon, 2003). The new Salvadoran Ministry of Education (MINED) was responsible for resuscitating a public education system that had been neglected for years—with the result of low levels of access, enrollment, attainment, equity and literacy. Almost two decades later, MINED’s long-term plan for education reform continues to shape Salvadoran education today. REFORM gOALS ARENA’s goals for national reform were twofold. The first was to ‘modernize’ the government’s structure by streamlining bureaucracy throughout the various ministries and increasing efficiency through decentralization and privatization of services (Cuéllar-Marchelli, 2003). The second goal was to transform and rebuild the education system as the center of ARENA’s reconstruction agenda (Marques and Bannon, 2003). Throughout the period, the explicit goals for education were targeted increases in access, completion, and improved learning outcomes. These goals became more explicit in the 10-year plan, and even more specific in the Plan 2021. Strategies MINED was charged with improving their operations within the national framework of modernizing the government. In 1992, the Ministry of Education’s situation was chaotic. It had grown haphazardly over the previous decade, and with the earthquake of 1986, MINED was not only organizationally and administratively disorganized, but also physically fragmented as offices were relocated throughout San Salvador. Their relationship with the teachers’ union SECTION 2: lESSONS fROM COUNTRY CASE STUdIES 67
was tense, and both sides often ignored the principle constituents: students. There was no precedent for establishing relationships with communities, parents, or even directly with schools. Consequently, MINED modernized early in the reform process. This resulted in organizational changes within the Ministry of Education, as well as the creation of new mechanisms for delivering educational services. New budgeting procedures were introduced and communication and information systems were installed. MINED was reorganized into 14 departmental offices 44 and operations were decentralized in order to improve day-to-day support to schools through a single conduit—school supervisors—whose selection criteria and position descriptions were rewritten. In the midst of this restructuring, the government reinstated an educational supervisory system and revised the legal framework, resulting in the 1990 Law of General Education and subsequent laws for higher education and teacher credentialing. The broader goal of rebuilding the education system required systematic effort and sustained attention. Before any technical interventions could gain traction, the Minister of Education recognized that ownership needed to lie with the general public. MINED employed a strategy of building broad public consensus to implement its reforms in such a fractured and untrusting environment. Their efforts included broad-based coalition building, extensive internal and external research, and the adoption of national long-term campaigns, all of which greatly influenced the positive and unifying role that education reform came to play in El Salvador. In 1992, MINED created the first Plan Nacional de Acción de Educación to establish and strengthen linkages between the state and civil society to meet the basic education needs of the entire population (Bejar, 1997). The first phase introduced foundational programs such as EDUCO (discussed below), but focused mainly on consensus building, strategizing, and positioning MINED for broader reforms. This Plan was followed by MINED’s first 10-year strategy (1995– 2005), Plan Decenal de Reforma Educativa en Marcha. This plan soon led to a restructuring of the institutional framework governing education. New legislation was passed in 1995 and 1996 for basic education, teacher education, and higher education, all of which redefined the roles of key institutions and actors. Consequently, MINED’s authority became more focused on central planning, 4 Departamentos are political administrative units equivalent to states or provinces. El Salvador comprises 14 administrative departments and MINED’s reorganization mirrored these political designations. 68 SECTION 2: lESSONS fROM COUNTRY CASE STUdIES
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The Power of Persistence Education
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table of Contents Acknowledgments F
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generously granted us their time an
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Foreword The United States Agency f
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Executive Summary EQUIP2 Education
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local points of contact. In fact, b
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Namibia has successfully developed
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Sustainability in the context of sy
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• Manage policy engagement and re
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After more than 50 years of develop
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to the point of functional literacy
Page 27 and 28: An obvious question for donors is
Page 29 and 30: • Was the investment in education
Page 31 and 32: A final perspective on ownership, a
Page 33 and 34: and recipients. The World Bank has
Page 35 and 36: the term differently. Donors someti
Page 37 and 38: Country commitment to improving pol
Page 39 and 40: The importance of these insights, b
Page 41 and 42: Table: Simple, Complicated, and Com
Page 43 and 44: Basic principles of systems thinkin
Page 45 and 46: Among the many aspects of systems t
Page 47 and 48: EQUIP2 Education Systems Reform Fra
Page 49 and 50: may or may not be influenced by the
Page 51: • There are no magic bullets. Par
Page 55 and 56: These case studies look at educatio
Page 57: El Salvador Egypt Namibia Nicaragua
Page 60 and 61: eform support during the 1980s and
Page 62 and 63: system. In the same year, the USAID
Page 64 and 65: CASE ANALySIS: DIMENSIONS OF REFORM
Page 66 and 67: increased during this period, parti
Page 68 and 69: militant groups (at least until 199
Page 70 and 71: the growing political will and capa
Page 72 and 73: political will and experience in bo
Page 75 and 76: EgyPT TIMELINE
Page 80 and 81: financing, and ensuring adequate le
Page 82 and 83: Impact Structurally, the education
Page 84 and 85: CASE ANALySIS: DIMENSIONS OF REFORM
Page 86 and 87: 2005, USAID assistance further stre
Page 88 and 89: EDUCO’s success exemplifies a tec
Page 90 and 91: workshop with representatives of bo
Page 92: • The continuing commitment to th
Page 95: El Salvador Time Line Before 1988 1
Page 98 and 99: Strategies Especially in the early
Page 100 and 101: In terms of quality, the impact on
Page 102 and 103: The second aspect is that the profe
Page 104 and 105: • The complex and holistic nature
Page 106 and 107: efforts have been studied closely,
Page 109 and 110: NAMIBIA TIMELINE
Page 112 and 113: Nicaragua: Summary COUNTRy CONTExT
Page 114 and 115: ASP won the support of donor agenci
Page 116 and 117: Nicaragua Education Indicators Indi
Page 118 and 119: Though the strong leadership of Min
Page 120: eform. Starting from the early 1990
Page 123: Nicaragua Time Line Before 1986 198
Page 126 and 127: growth; primary enrollment expanded
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accountability and corruption led d
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Selected Reform goals, Policy Chang
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Increased sector leadership from MO
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it have to cope with major governme
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management and administration that
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the education system and have limit
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help an overextended MOE to meet se
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ZAMBIA TIMELINE
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3 summary Findings and Conclusions
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In addition to an EFA-inspired emph
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from political changes. After 15 ye
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ased management, but were limited t
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is not necessarily limited to indiv
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sector limited the agenda-setting m
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and every new government seeks its
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8. USAID and other donors have been
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CONCLUSIONS This review of five cou
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Ownership It is a central tenet of
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actors is a never-ending process. T
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was beyond the mandate of the Minis
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IMPLICATIONS FOR USAID POLICy AND P
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Bibliography general References Alv
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UNESCO. 2007. EFA Global Monitoring
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Healy, F. & Crouch, L. (2007, Novem
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Sidhom, S. & Al-Fustat, A. (2004, J
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Crouch, L., J. Gillies, A. Florez.
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LLECE, “Conclusiones del estudio
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Miller-Grandvaux, Yolande and Karla
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1875 Connecticut Ave., NW Washingto
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