GOLD Report I - UCLG

NORTH AMERICA236United Cities and Local Governmentsdegree of consolidation has always variedwidely by regions. In recent decades consolidationand annexation of territory bylocal governments have been commonplacein faster growing areas of the South andWest, but have remained more limited orexceptional in the Northeast and otherareas of older settlement. On the whole,recent counter-trends toward creation ofnew municipalities have offset countertrendstoward consolidation. From 1992to 2002, the number of municipal governmentsincreased by 150 to 16,504 (U.S.Bureau of the Census 1992, 2002).Much more than in Canada and other countries, inter-localgovernance in the United States has taken place throughseparate, special-purpose district governments that areindependent of local governmentsLocal government consolidation has beenonly one of several types of arrangementsthat could foster inter-local governancewithin metropolitan regions. Anupper tier of local government or a newform of functional cooperation amongmunicipalities may also provide mechanismsfor this task. Practical moves inthis direction over the past decade havetaken a variety of forms.Canadian provinces and municipalitieshave undertaken some of the most far-reachingreforms in metropolitan governance.Mainly in eastern Canada, reorganizationsin most metropolitan areas haveproduced more encompassing metropolitanunits of governance. Alongside theconsolidations of municipalities, regionalbodies have been formed in three provinces,and metropolitan planning initiativeshave taken place in a number of the largestmetropolitan areas (Rivard and Collin).Such a move is less apparent in the UnitedStates. Only a few of the large metropolitanareas, such as Portland, Oregon,and Minneapolis-St. Paul in Minnesota,have developed distinct metropolitan institutions.County governments like KingCounty in metropolitan Seattle, Washington,and Pima County in metropolitanPhoenix, Arizona, have encompassed largeportions of the metropolitan area, andhave often addressed issues on a metropolitanscale. In a few small-to-mid-sizedmetropolitan areas, such as Jacksonville,Florida, and Sacramento, California, consolidationof city government into countygovernment has created what amountsto a metropolitan government (Lelandand Thurmaier 2004). Advisory regionalcouncils of governments, a legacy offederal requirements for transportationplanning, frequently provide a basis forcoordination of planning issues. Moststates also authorize cooperation amonglocal governments (Richardson, Goughand Puentes 2003).Much more than in Canada and other countries,inter-local governance in the UnitedStates has taken place through separate,special-purpose district governments thatare independent of local governments.The largest number of these (13,506 in2002) administered separate public schoolsystems across the country. Others dealwith water and sewers, hospital services ortransportation. Although the total numberof these districts (48,588), as counted bythe U.S. Census of Governments, exceedsthe number of traditional local governments(35,933), the actual number of specialty,inter-local districts is probablyhigher. The number of school districtsdeclined slightly (900) from 1992 to 2002,typically due to consolidation among municipalitieswithin metropolitan areas. Butthe number of other special districts increasedby 3,500 over the same period. InCanada too, most primary and secondaryeducation is administered by school boardsindependent of local government, and anumber of agencies, boards, and commissionssee to special functions jointly sharedamong municipalities. Unlike their U.S.,counterparts, however, these boards donot have independent powers of taxation.