GOLD Report I - UCLG

245years. In the U.S. there are often multiplelocal electoral offices, including boards,local administrative officials and sometimeslocal judges. Recall elections for localofficials are authorized in around half ofU.S. states. In California these have becomea regular occurrence. Term limits in agrowing number of U.S. localities have alsoprevented incumbents from holding on tosafe seats. Finally, referenda are a moreregular feature of local politics in much ofthe United States than in any country otherthan Switzerland. Although resort to directdemocracy varies widely by state andregion, voting now plays a major role intransportation, infrastructure and publicfinance in such states as California, Ohioand Washington State. Canada also has along tradition of referenda (Hahn 1968).With the exception of three-year councilterms, these practices set both countriesapart from fellow former colonies Australiaand New Zealand.Participation in local elections is relativelylow, conforming to the international trendof higher voter turnout for elections athigher levels. This tendency is particularlypronounced in the United States whereelectoral turnout has been lower than it isin other countries affiliated with the Organisationfor Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD). Local election turnoutas a proportion of the eligible popula-Table 5Local DemocracyLocal councils Local executive DirectdemocracyProportional/ Constituencies Term Mode of Term Collegial / Recallmajority rule selection unitaryAustralia preferential or plurality One 3-4 years Mostly popular 3-4 years Unitary No Infrequentsystems (4 states),election, somepreferential orindirectly electionproportionalrepresentation (2),proportionalrepresentation (1)Canada Generally, plurality Multiple 3 years, Direct election 3 years, Unitary No Frequent: for4 years or (8 provinces), 4 years or taxes, planning2-3 years indirect election (2) 2-3 yearsNew Zealand Plurality Multiple 3 years Direct election 3 years Unitary No Occasional,infrastructureand electoral rulesUnited States Mostly plurality, Multiple, one 3.3 years Direct Generally Collegial Authorized Frequent orsome multimember and mixed on average election (50%), 2-4 years (5%), in half of very frequent:districts and single indirect election (3 on average) Otherwise states, revenues,nontransferable (50%), unitary occasionally infrastructure,vote systems used annexation issuesSources: Bush (1995); Commonwealth Local Government Forum (2002a, 2002b); International City/County Management Association (1997);McManus (1999); Mouritzen and Svara (2002); United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2002a, 2002b );Zimmerman 1997; Canadian provincial and territorial local government acts.