Subatomic Physics

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Preface to the First Edition Subatomic Physics, the physics of nuclei and particles, has been one of the frontiers of science since its birth in 1896. From the study of the radiations emitted by radioactive nuclei to the scattering experiments that point to the presence of subunits in nucleons, from the discovery of the hadronic interactions to the realization that the photon possesses hadronic (strong) attributes, and that weak and electromagnetic forces may be intimately related, subatomic physics has enriched science with new concepts and deeper insights into the laws of nature. Subatomic Physics does not stand isolated; it bears on many aspects of life. Ideas and facts emerging from studies of the subatomic world change our picture of the macrocosmos. Concepts discovered in subatomic physics are needed to understand the creation and abundance of the elements, and the energy production in the sun and the stars. Nuclear power may provide most of the future energy sources. Nuclear bombs affect national and international decisions. Pion beams have become a tool to treat cancer. Tracer and Mössbauer techniques give information about structure and reactions in solid state physics, chemistry, biology, metallurgy, and geology. Subatomic Physics, because it reaches into so many areas, should not only be accessible to physicists, but also to other scientists and to engineers. The chemist observing the Mössbauer effect, the geologist using a radioactive dating method, the physician injecting a radioactive isotope, or the nuclear engineer designing a power plant have no immediate need to understand isospin or inelastic electron scattering. Nevertheless, their work may be more satisfying and they may be able to find new connections if they have a grasp of the basic principles of subatomic physics. While the present book is mainly intended as an introduction for physicists, we hope that it will also be useful to other scientists and to engineers. Subatomic Physics deals with all entities smaller than the atom; it combines nuclear and particle physics. The two fields have many concepts and features in common. Consequently, we treat them together and attempt to stress unifying ideas, concepts and currently unsolved problems. We also show how subatomic ix
x Preface to the First Edition physics is involved in astrophysics. The level of presentation is aimed at the senior undergraduate or first-year graduate student who has some understanding of electromagnetism, special relativity, and quantum theory. While many aspects of subatomic physics can be elucidated by hand waving and analogies, a proper understanding requires equations. One of the most infuriating sentences in textbooks is “It can be shown...” We would like to avoid this sentence but it is just not possible. We include most derivations but use equations without proof in two situations. Many of the equations from other fields will be quoted without derivation in order to save space and time. The second situation arises when the proper tools, for instance Dirac theory of field quantization, are too advanced. We justify omission in both situations by an analogy. Mountain climbers usually like to reach the unexplored parts of a climb quickly rather than spend days walking through familiar terrain. Quoting equations from quantum theory and electrodynamics corresponds to reaching the starting point of an adventure by car or cable car. Some peaks can only by reached by difficult routes. An inexperienced climber, not yet capable of mastering such a route, can still learn by watching from a safe place. Similarly, some equations can only be reached by difficult derivations, but the reader can still learn by exploring the equations without following their derivations. Therfore, we will quot some relations without proof, but we will try to make the result plausible and to explore the physical consequences. Some more difficult parts will be denoted with bullets (•); these parts can be omitted on first reading.
Page 2 and 3: SUBAT MIC PHYSICS Third Edition
Page 4 and 5: SUBAT MIC PHYSICS Ernest M Henley A
Page 6 and 7: To Elaine and Viviana
Page 8 and 9: Acknowledgments In writing the pres
Page 12 and 13: Preface to the Third Edition Subato
Page 14 and 15: General Bibliography The reader of
Page 16 and 17: Contents Dedication v Acknowledgmen
Page 18 and 19: Contents xvii 6 Structure of Subato
Page 20 and 21: Contents xix 12.5 GeneralReferences
Page 22 and 23: Chapter 1 Background and Language H
Page 24 and 25: 1.2. Units 3 1.2 Units Table 1.1: B
Page 26 and 27: 1.3. Special Relativity, Feynman Di
Page 28 and 29: 1.3. Special Relativity, Feynman Di
Page 30 and 31: 1.4. References 9 Problems 1.1. ∗
Page 32 and 33: Part I Tools One of the most frustr
Page 34 and 35: Chapter 2 Accelerators 2.1 Why Acce
Page 36 and 37: 2.1. Why Accelerators? 15 particle
Page 38 and 39: 2.2. Cross Sections and Luminosity
Page 40 and 41: 2.3. Electrostatic Generators (Van
Page 42 and 43: 2.4. Linear Accelerators (Linacs) 2
Page 44 and 45: 2.5. Beam Optics 23 Figure 2.8: Rec
Page 46 and 47: 2.6. Synchrotrons 25 Figure 2.10: E
Page 48 and 49: 2.6. Synchrotrons 27 Photo 3: The p
Page 50 and 51: 2.7. Laboratory and Center-of-Momen
Page 52 and 53: 2.8. Colliding Beams 31 or with Eqs
Page 54 and 55: 2.10. Beam Storage and Cooling 33 l
Page 56 and 57: 2.11. References 35 and in E. Byckl
Page 58 and 59: 2.11. References 37 (b) Extreme rel
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Chapter 3 Passage of Radiation Thro
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3.2. Heavy Charged Particles 41 Fig
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3.2. Heavy Charged Particles 43 −
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3.3. Photons 45 Equation (3.2) also
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3.4. Electrons 47 Figure 3.8: Passa
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3.5. Nuclear Interactions 49 Figure
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3.6. References 51 3.8. A beam of 1
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Chapter 4 Detectors What would a ph
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4.1. Scintillation Counters 55 The
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4.2. Statistical Aspects 57 Or, to
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4.3. Semiconductor Detectors 59 kno
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4.3. Semiconductor Detectors 61 Fig
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4.4. Bubble Chambers 63 Photo 5: Bu
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4.6. Wire Chambers 65 voltage suppl
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4.8. Time Projection Chambers 67 Fi
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4.10. Calorimeters 69 Figure 4.18:
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4.11. Counter Electronics 71 Figure
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4.13. References 73 Table 4.1: Func
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4.13. References 75 4.6. Sketch the
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Part II Particles and Nuclei The si
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Chapter 5 The Subatomic Zoo A conve
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5.1. Mass and Spin. Fermions and Bo
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5.1. Mass and Spin. Fermions and Bo
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5.2. Electric Charge and Magnetic D
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5.3. Mass Measurements 87 Figure 5.
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5.3. Mass Measurements 89 Figure 5.
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5.3. Mass Measurements 91 Earlier,
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5.4. A First Glance at the Subatomi
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5.5. Gauge Bosons 95 Figure 5.13: A
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5.6. Leptons 97 to its momentum, re
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5.7. Decays 99 Figure 5.15: Exponen
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5.7. Decays 101 The function g(ω)
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5.8. Mesons 103 5.8 Mesons Table 5.
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5.9. Baryon Ground States 105 Japan
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5.9. Baryon Ground States 107 neutr
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5.10. Particles and Antiparticles 1
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5.10. Particles and Antiparticles 1
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5.11. Quarks, Gluons, and Intermedi
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5.12. Excited States and Resonances
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5.12. Excited States and Resonances
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5.13. Excited States of Baryons 123
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5.14. References 129 in Section 5.5
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5.14. References 131 5.14. Use the
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5.14. References 133 5.32. ∗ What
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Chapter 6 Structure of Subatomic Pa
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6.2. Rutherford and Mott Scattering
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6.2. Rutherford and Mott Scattering
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6.3. Form Factors 141 The scatterin
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6.4. The Charge Distribution of Sph
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6.4. The Charge Distribution of Sph
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6.5. Leptons Are Point Particles 14
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6.6. Nucleon Elastic Form Factors 1
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6.8. Inelastic Electron and Muon Sc
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6.8. Inelastic Electron and Muon Sc
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6.9. Deep Inelastic Electron Scatte
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6.10. Quark-Parton Model for Deep I
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6.11. More Details on Scattering an
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6.12. References 189 Some character
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6.12. References 191 (c) Show that
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6.12. References 193 6.23. Show tha
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Part III Symmetries and Conservatio
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Chapter 7 Additive Conservation Law
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7.1. Conserved Quantities and Symme
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7.1. Conserved Quantities and Symme
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7.2. The Electric Charge 203 7.2 Th
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7.2. The Electric Charge 205 or [Q,
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7.3. The Baryon Number 207 antineut
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7.4. Lepton and Lepton Flavor Numbe
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7.5. Strangeness Flavor 211 all bel
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7.5. Strangeness Flavor 213 Positiv
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7.6. Additive Quantum Numbers of Qu
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7.7. References 217 There are also
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7.7. References 219 7.12. Follow th
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Chapter 8 Angular Momentum and Isos
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8.2. Symmetry Breaking by a Magneti
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8.4. The Nucleon Isospin 225 8.4 Th
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8.5. Isospin Invariance 227 magneti
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8.6. Isospin of Particles 229 the v
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8.6. Isospin of Particles 231 The a
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8.7. Isospin in Nuclei 233 If the e
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8.8. References 235 Isospin doublet
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8.8. References 237 8.4. Verify the
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Chapter 9 P , C, CP, andT In the pr
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9.1. The Parity Operation 241 P is
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9.2. The Intrinsic Parities of Suba
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9.2. The Intrinsic Parities of Suba
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9.3. Conservation and Breakdown of
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9.4. Charge Conjugation 253 “Is t
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9.4. Charge Conjugation 255 The π
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9.5. Time Reversal 257 if Tψ(t) an
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9.5. Time Reversal 259 found to be
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9.6. The Two-State Problem 261 Hami
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9.7. The Neutral Kaons 263 9.7 The
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9.7. The Neutral Kaons 265 3. The s
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9.7. The Neutral Kaons 267 and only
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9.8. The Fall of CP Invariance 269
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9.9. References 271 • There are t
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9.9. References 273 9.8. * Find inf
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9.9. References 275 9.27. Assume th
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9.9. References 277 9.39. Compare t
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Part IV Interactions In the previou
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Chapter 10 The Electromagnetic Inte
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10.1. The Golden Rule 283 Schrödin
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10.1. The Golden Rule 285 where it
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10.2. Phase Space 287 Figure 10.4:
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10.3. The Classical Electromagnetic
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10.3. The Classical Electromagnetic
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10.4. Photon Emission 293 is a twof
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10.4. Photon Emission 295 the form
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10.4. Photon Emission 297 where V (
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10.5. Multipole Radiation 299 The t
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10.5. Multipole Radiation 301 Figur
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10.6. Electromagnetic Scattering of
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10.6. Electromagnetic Scattering of
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10.7. Vector Mesons as Mediators of
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10.7. Vector Mesons as Mediators of
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10.8. Colliding Beams 311 10.8 Coll
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10.8. Colliding Beams 313 Figure 10
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10.9. Electron-Positron Collisions
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10.10. The Photon-Hadron Interactio
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10.11. Magnetic Monopoles 323 The s
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10.12. References 325 Quantum Elect
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10.12. References 327 (b) Compare t
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10.12. References 329 (a) How would
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Chapter 11 The Weak Interaction Thi
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11.1. The Continuous Beta Spectrum
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11.2. Beta Decay Lifetimes 335 The
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11.3. The Current-Current Interacti
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11.4. A Variety of Weak Processes 3
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11.4. A Variety of Weak Processes 3
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11.5. The Muon Decay 347 Linac Pion
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11.6. The Weak Current of Leptons 3
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11.6. The Weak Current of Leptons 3
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11.7. Chirality versus Helicity 353
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11.9. Weak Decays of Quarks and the
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11.10. Weak Currents in Nuclear Phy
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11.10. Weak Currents in Nuclear Phy
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11.11. Inverse Beta Decay: Reines a
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11.12. Massive Neutrinos 363 11.12
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11.13. Majorana versus Dirac Neutri
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11.14. The Weak Current of Hadrons
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11.15. References 375 11.15 Referen
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11.15. References 377 11.5. Beta sp
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11.15. References 379 (b) * Discuss
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11.15. References 381 11.41. For nu
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Chapter 12 Introduction to Gauge Th
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12.1. Introduction 385 D0 ≡ 1 ∂
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12.2. Potentials in Quantum Mechani
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12.3. Gauge Invariance for Non-Abel
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12.3. Gauge Invariance for Non-Abel
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12.4. The Higgs Mechanism; Spontane
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12.5. General References 401 12.5 G
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Chapter 13 The Electroweak Theory o
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13.2. The Gauge Bosons and Weak Iso
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13.2. The Gauge Bosons and Weak Iso
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13.3. The Electroweak Interaction 4
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13.4. Tests of the Standard Model 4
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13.4. Tests of the Standard Model 4
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13.5. References 419 Physics. 112,
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Chapter 14 Strong Interactions All
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14.1. Range and Strength of the Low
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14.2. The Pion-Nucleon Interaction
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14.3. The Form of the Pion-Nucleon
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14.4. The Yukawa Theory of Nuclear
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14.5. Low-Energy Nucleon-Nucleon Fo
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14.6. Meson Theory of the Nucleon-N
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14.7. Strong Processes at High Ener
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14.8. The Standard Model, Quantum C
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14.9. QCD at Low Energies 457 An ex
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14.10. Grand Unified Theories, Supe
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14.11. References 461 and Partons,
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14.11. References 463 Fig. 14.28 14
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14.11. References 465 14.25. The lo
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14.11. References 467 (b) What comb
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Part V Models “A model is like an
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Chapter 15 Quark Models of Mesons a
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15.2. Quarks as Building Blocks of
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15.4. Mesons as Bound Quark States
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15.4. Mesons as Bound Quark States
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15.5. Baryons as Bound Quark States
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15.6. The Hadron Masses 481 Figure
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15.7. QCD and Quark Models of the H
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15.8. Heavy Mesons: Charmonium, Ups
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15.9. Outlook and Problems 493 wher
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15.10. References 495 On a more adv
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15.10. References 497 where J± = J
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15.10. References 499 (b) Apply the
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Chapter 16 Liquid Drop Model, Fermi
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16.1. The Liquid Drop Model 503 Fig
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16.1. The Liquid Drop Model 505 Bey
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16.2. The Fermi Gas Model 507 N = V
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E/A(MeV) 16.3. Heavy Ion Reactions
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16.4. Relativistic Heavy Ion Collis
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16.4. Relativistic Heavy Ion Collis
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16.5. References 515 medium (i.e. s
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16.5. References 517 16.12. Symmetr
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16.5. References 519 16.25. At RHIC
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Chapter 17 The Shell Model The liqu
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17.1. The Magic Numbers 523 The res
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17.2. The Closed Shells 525 solved
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17.2. The Closed Shells 527 Figure
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17.3. The Spin-Orbit Interaction 52
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17.4. The Single-Particle Shell Mod
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17.5. Generalization of the Single-
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17.6. Isobaric Analog Resonances 53
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17.7. Nuclei Far From the Valley of
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17.8. References 539 An elementary
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17.8. References 541 (b) N odd. (c)
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Chapter 18 Collective Model Althoug
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18.1. Nuclear Deformations 545 spin
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18.2. Rotational Spectra of Spinles
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18.2. Rotational Spectra of Spinles
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18.3. Rotational Families 551 A spi
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18.3. Rotational Families 553 2. Th
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18.4. One-Particle Motion in Deform
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18.4. One-Particle Motion in Deform
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18.5. Vibrational States in Spheric
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18.5. Vibrational States in Spheric
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18.6. The Interacting Boson Model 5
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18.7. Highly Excited States; Giant
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18.8. Nuclear Models—Concluding R
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18.8. Nuclear Models—Concluding R
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18.9. References 571 J. S. Vaagen,
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18.9. References 573 18.13. Verify
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18.9. References 575 18.33. Conside
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18.9. References 577 18.51. (a) In
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Chapter 19 Nuclear and Particle Ast
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19.1. The Beginning of the Universe
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19.1. The Beginning of the Universe
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19.2. Primordial Nucleosynthesis 58
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19.3. Stellar Energy and Nucleosynt
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19.4. Stellar Collapse and Neutron
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19.4. Stellar Collapse and Neutron
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19.5. Cosmic Rays 597 We are consta
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19.5. Cosmic Rays 599 Figure 19.11:
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19.6. Neutrino Astronomy and Cosmol
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19.8. References 603 baryon excess
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19.8. References 605 Neutron Stars
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19.8. References 607 (a) What is th
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Index Abundance, 585-586 Accelerato
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Index 611 drift chambers, 66-67 ele
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Index 613 diagrams, 279 electromagn
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Index 615 outlook, 567 Nuclear stru
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Index 617 poles, 494 recurrences, 4
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Index 619 TCP theorem, 269, 448 Tem
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