Subatomic Physics

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18.8. Nuclear Models—Concluding Remarks 569 on a nucleon, but there are also differences. For instance, the spin–orbit potential is considerably weaker than that for nucleons. This difference can be understood easily on the basis of quark models, (49) but also with nucleons and mesons. (50) The study of hypernuclei has been pursued avidly. Excited as well as ground states have been observed. The hypernuclei are formed by (K − ,π − )or(π + ,K + ) reactions. In the former case the reaction can proceed with small momentum transfer, so that the Λ 0 has a good chance of forming the ground state of a hypernucleus and remaining in the nucleus; the latter reactions tend to produce nuclei in states of higher angular momenta. Other baryons that can be investigated in the nuclear medium are excited states of the nucleon, particularly the ∆(1232). Such nuclei are formed by scattering pions on a nuclear target at energies close to that of the ∆(1232). Investigations of ∆’s in nuclei have been essential in understanding the scattering of pions from nuclei (51) and for probing the probability of finding ∆’s in the wavefunction of the target nucleus. (52) The evidence points to a probability of at most a few percent. A question that has received wide attention is that of the alteration of the properties of nucleons in nuclei. This topic was discussed in Section 6.10. Additional effects, particularly two-body correlations occur when two nucleons are close to each other in nuclei. Such short range correlations show up in the multiple scattering of high energy electrons and nucleons from nuclei, described in Section 6.11; they have also been studied in the double charge exchange reaction (π + ,π − )toisobaric analogue states, (53) since two neutrons must be turned into protons in this process. Finally, we have only talked about two-body forces between nucleons. However, meson-theoretical considerations suggest that three-body forces, even if weaker than two-body forces, should exist; such forces come into play only if three nucleons are close together. Evidence from 3 He and 3 H indicates that such forces do not play a large role in nuclei, (54) but more work is required to fully assess their importance. 51 G.E. Brown, B.K. Jennings, and V.I. Rostokin, Phys. Rep. 50, 227 (1979); A.W. Thomas and R.H. Landau, Phys. Rep. 58, 122 (1980); E. Oset H. Toki, and W. Weise, Phys. Rep. 83, 282 (1982); M. Rho, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 37, 531 (1984); W.R. Gibbs and B.F. Gibson, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 37, 411 (1987). 52 H.J. Weber and H. Arenhövel, Phys. Rep. 36, 277 (1978); B. ter Haar and R. Malfliet, Phys. Rep. 149, 207 (1987); see also B. Julia-Diaz, T.-S.H. Lee, T. Sato, and L.C. Smith, nucl-th/0611033; O. Drechsel and L. Tiator, nucl-th0610112. 53 W. R. Gibbs and B. F. Gibson, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 37, 411 (1987); E. Bleszynski, M. Bleszynski, and R. Glauber. Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 1483 (1988); O. Buss, L. Alvarez-Ruso, A.B. Larionov, and U. Mosel, Phys. Rev. C 74, 044610 (2006). 54 J.L. Friar, B.F. Gibson, and G.L. Payne, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 34, 403 (1984); The Three-Body Force in the Three Nucleon System, (B. L. Berman and B. F. Gibson, eds.) Springer Lecture Notes in Physics, 260, Springer, New York, 1986.
570 Collective Model Figure 18.17: Energy levels for a harmonic oscillator potential with prolate spheroidal deformations. The particle numbers of closed shells are shown for a spherical potential and for an ellipsoid with a ratio of major to minor axes of 2. [Courtesy J. R. Nix and reproduced with permission from the Annu. Rev. Nucl. Sci. 22, 65 (1972); c○ Annual Reviews, Inc.] 18.9 References Classic treatments of most of the aspects described in this chapter are given in more detail in A. de Shalit and H. Feshbach, Theoretical Nuclear Physics, Vol. I: Nuclear Structure, Wiley, New York, 1974; J.D. Walecka, Theoretical Nuclear and Subnuclear Physics, World Sci. (2004); J. M. Arias, M. Lozano An Advanced Course in Modern Nuclear Physics, Springer (2001). The authoritative work on the phenomenological description of the collective nuclear model is A. Bohr and B. R. Mottelson, Nuclear Structure, Vol. II, Benjamin, Reading, Mass. 1975. Superdeformation and nuclear rotation at high spins are described in R.V.F. Janssens and T.L. Khoo, Annu. Rev. Nuc. Part. Sci. 41, 321 (1991). The collective model, resonances and high spin states are reviewed in D. Ward and P. Fallon, High Spin Properties of Atomic Nuclei in Adv, in Nucl. Phys. 26, 168 (2001); Collective Phenomena in Atomic Nuclei, (T. Engeland, J.E. Rekstad, and
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SUBAT MIC PHYSICS Third Edition
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SUBAT MIC PHYSICS Ernest M Henley A
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To Elaine and Viviana
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Acknowledgments In writing the pres
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Preface to the First Edition Subato
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Preface to the Third Edition Subato
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General Bibliography The reader of
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Contents Dedication v Acknowledgmen
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Contents xvii 6 Structure of Subato
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Contents xix 12.5 GeneralReferences
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Chapter 1 Background and Language H
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1.2. Units 3 1.2 Units Table 1.1: B
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1.3. Special Relativity, Feynman Di
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1.3. Special Relativity, Feynman Di
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1.4. References 9 Problems 1.1. ∗
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Part I Tools One of the most frustr
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Chapter 2 Accelerators 2.1 Why Acce
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2.1. Why Accelerators? 15 particle
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2.2. Cross Sections and Luminosity
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2.3. Electrostatic Generators (Van
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2.4. Linear Accelerators (Linacs) 2
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2.5. Beam Optics 23 Figure 2.8: Rec
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2.6. Synchrotrons 25 Figure 2.10: E
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2.6. Synchrotrons 27 Photo 3: The p
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2.7. Laboratory and Center-of-Momen
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2.8. Colliding Beams 31 or with Eqs
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2.10. Beam Storage and Cooling 33 l
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2.11. References 35 and in E. Byckl
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2.11. References 37 (b) Extreme rel
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Chapter 3 Passage of Radiation Thro
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3.2. Heavy Charged Particles 41 Fig
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3.2. Heavy Charged Particles 43 −
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3.3. Photons 45 Equation (3.2) also
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3.4. Electrons 47 Figure 3.8: Passa
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3.5. Nuclear Interactions 49 Figure
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3.6. References 51 3.8. A beam of 1
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Chapter 4 Detectors What would a ph
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4.1. Scintillation Counters 55 The
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4.2. Statistical Aspects 57 Or, to
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4.3. Semiconductor Detectors 59 kno
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4.3. Semiconductor Detectors 61 Fig
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4.4. Bubble Chambers 63 Photo 5: Bu
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4.6. Wire Chambers 65 voltage suppl
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4.8. Time Projection Chambers 67 Fi
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4.10. Calorimeters 69 Figure 4.18:
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4.11. Counter Electronics 71 Figure
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4.13. References 73 Table 4.1: Func
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4.13. References 75 4.6. Sketch the
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Part II Particles and Nuclei The si
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Chapter 5 The Subatomic Zoo A conve
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5.1. Mass and Spin. Fermions and Bo
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5.1. Mass and Spin. Fermions and Bo
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5.2. Electric Charge and Magnetic D
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5.3. Mass Measurements 87 Figure 5.
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5.3. Mass Measurements 89 Figure 5.
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5.3. Mass Measurements 91 Earlier,
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5.4. A First Glance at the Subatomi
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5.5. Gauge Bosons 95 Figure 5.13: A
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5.6. Leptons 97 to its momentum, re
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5.7. Decays 99 Figure 5.15: Exponen
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5.7. Decays 101 The function g(ω)
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5.8. Mesons 103 5.8 Mesons Table 5.
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5.9. Baryon Ground States 105 Japan
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5.9. Baryon Ground States 107 neutr
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5.10. Particles and Antiparticles 1
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5.10. Particles and Antiparticles 1
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5.11. Quarks, Gluons, and Intermedi
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5.12. Excited States and Resonances
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5.12. Excited States and Resonances
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5.13. Excited States of Baryons 123
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5.14. References 129 in Section 5.5
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5.14. References 131 5.14. Use the
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5.14. References 133 5.32. ∗ What
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Chapter 6 Structure of Subatomic Pa
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6.2. Rutherford and Mott Scattering
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6.2. Rutherford and Mott Scattering
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6.3. Form Factors 141 The scatterin
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6.4. The Charge Distribution of Sph
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6.4. The Charge Distribution of Sph
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6.5. Leptons Are Point Particles 14
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6.6. Nucleon Elastic Form Factors 1
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6.8. Inelastic Electron and Muon Sc
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6.8. Inelastic Electron and Muon Sc
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6.9. Deep Inelastic Electron Scatte
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6.10. Quark-Parton Model for Deep I
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6.11. More Details on Scattering an
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6.12. References 189 Some character
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6.12. References 191 (c) Show that
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6.12. References 193 6.23. Show tha
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Part III Symmetries and Conservatio
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Chapter 7 Additive Conservation Law
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7.1. Conserved Quantities and Symme
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7.1. Conserved Quantities and Symme
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7.2. The Electric Charge 203 7.2 Th
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7.2. The Electric Charge 205 or [Q,
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7.3. The Baryon Number 207 antineut
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7.4. Lepton and Lepton Flavor Numbe
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7.5. Strangeness Flavor 211 all bel
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7.5. Strangeness Flavor 213 Positiv
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7.6. Additive Quantum Numbers of Qu
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7.7. References 217 There are also
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7.7. References 219 7.12. Follow th
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Chapter 8 Angular Momentum and Isos
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8.2. Symmetry Breaking by a Magneti
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8.4. The Nucleon Isospin 225 8.4 Th
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8.5. Isospin Invariance 227 magneti
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8.6. Isospin of Particles 229 the v
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8.6. Isospin of Particles 231 The a
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8.7. Isospin in Nuclei 233 If the e
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8.8. References 235 Isospin doublet
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8.8. References 237 8.4. Verify the
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Chapter 9 P , C, CP, andT In the pr
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9.1. The Parity Operation 241 P is
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9.2. The Intrinsic Parities of Suba
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9.2. The Intrinsic Parities of Suba
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9.3. Conservation and Breakdown of
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9.4. Charge Conjugation 253 “Is t
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9.4. Charge Conjugation 255 The π
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9.5. Time Reversal 257 if Tψ(t) an
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9.5. Time Reversal 259 found to be
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9.6. The Two-State Problem 261 Hami
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9.7. The Neutral Kaons 263 9.7 The
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9.7. The Neutral Kaons 265 3. The s
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9.7. The Neutral Kaons 267 and only
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9.8. The Fall of CP Invariance 269
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9.9. References 271 • There are t
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9.9. References 273 9.8. * Find inf
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9.9. References 275 9.27. Assume th
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9.9. References 277 9.39. Compare t
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Part IV Interactions In the previou
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Chapter 10 The Electromagnetic Inte
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10.1. The Golden Rule 283 Schrödin
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10.1. The Golden Rule 285 where it
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10.2. Phase Space 287 Figure 10.4:
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10.3. The Classical Electromagnetic
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10.3. The Classical Electromagnetic
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10.4. Photon Emission 293 is a twof
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10.4. Photon Emission 295 the form
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10.4. Photon Emission 297 where V (
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10.5. Multipole Radiation 299 The t
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10.5. Multipole Radiation 301 Figur
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10.6. Electromagnetic Scattering of
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10.6. Electromagnetic Scattering of
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10.7. Vector Mesons as Mediators of
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10.7. Vector Mesons as Mediators of
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10.8. Colliding Beams 311 10.8 Coll
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10.8. Colliding Beams 313 Figure 10
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10.9. Electron-Positron Collisions
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10.10. The Photon-Hadron Interactio
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10.11. Magnetic Monopoles 323 The s
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10.12. References 325 Quantum Elect
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10.12. References 327 (b) Compare t
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10.12. References 329 (a) How would
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Chapter 11 The Weak Interaction Thi
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11.1. The Continuous Beta Spectrum
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11.2. Beta Decay Lifetimes 335 The
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11.3. The Current-Current Interacti
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11.4. A Variety of Weak Processes 3
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11.4. A Variety of Weak Processes 3
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11.5. The Muon Decay 347 Linac Pion
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11.6. The Weak Current of Leptons 3
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11.6. The Weak Current of Leptons 3
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11.7. Chirality versus Helicity 353
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11.9. Weak Decays of Quarks and the
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11.10. Weak Currents in Nuclear Phy
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11.10. Weak Currents in Nuclear Phy
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11.11. Inverse Beta Decay: Reines a
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11.12. Massive Neutrinos 363 11.12
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11.13. Majorana versus Dirac Neutri
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11.14. The Weak Current of Hadrons
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11.15. References 375 11.15 Referen
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11.15. References 377 11.5. Beta sp
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11.15. References 379 (b) * Discuss
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11.15. References 381 11.41. For nu
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Chapter 12 Introduction to Gauge Th
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12.1. Introduction 385 D0 ≡ 1 ∂
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12.2. Potentials in Quantum Mechani
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12.3. Gauge Invariance for Non-Abel
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12.3. Gauge Invariance for Non-Abel
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12.4. The Higgs Mechanism; Spontane
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12.5. General References 401 12.5 G
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Chapter 13 The Electroweak Theory o
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13.2. The Gauge Bosons and Weak Iso
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13.2. The Gauge Bosons and Weak Iso
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13.3. The Electroweak Interaction 4
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13.4. Tests of the Standard Model 4
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13.4. Tests of the Standard Model 4
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13.5. References 419 Physics. 112,
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Chapter 14 Strong Interactions All
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14.1. Range and Strength of the Low
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14.2. The Pion-Nucleon Interaction
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14.3. The Form of the Pion-Nucleon
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14.4. The Yukawa Theory of Nuclear
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14.5. Low-Energy Nucleon-Nucleon Fo
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14.6. Meson Theory of the Nucleon-N
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14.7. Strong Processes at High Ener
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14.8. The Standard Model, Quantum C
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14.9. QCD at Low Energies 457 An ex
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14.10. Grand Unified Theories, Supe
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14.11. References 461 and Partons,
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14.11. References 463 Fig. 14.28 14
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14.11. References 465 14.25. The lo
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14.11. References 467 (b) What comb
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Part V Models “A model is like an
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Chapter 15 Quark Models of Mesons a
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15.2. Quarks as Building Blocks of
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15.4. Mesons as Bound Quark States
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15.4. Mesons as Bound Quark States
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15.5. Baryons as Bound Quark States
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15.6. The Hadron Masses 481 Figure
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15.7. QCD and Quark Models of the H
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15.8. Heavy Mesons: Charmonium, Ups
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15.9. Outlook and Problems 493 wher
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15.10. References 495 On a more adv
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15.10. References 497 where J± = J
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15.10. References 499 (b) Apply the
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Chapter 16 Liquid Drop Model, Fermi
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16.1. The Liquid Drop Model 503 Fig
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16.1. The Liquid Drop Model 505 Bey
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16.2. The Fermi Gas Model 507 N = V
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E/A(MeV) 16.3. Heavy Ion Reactions
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16.4. Relativistic Heavy Ion Collis
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16.4. Relativistic Heavy Ion Collis
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16.5. References 515 medium (i.e. s
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16.5. References 517 16.12. Symmetr
Page 540 and 541: 16.5. References 519 16.25. At RHIC
Page 542 and 543: Chapter 17 The Shell Model The liqu
Page 544 and 545: 17.1. The Magic Numbers 523 The res
Page 546 and 547: 17.2. The Closed Shells 525 solved
Page 548 and 549: 17.2. The Closed Shells 527 Figure
Page 550 and 551: 17.3. The Spin-Orbit Interaction 52
Page 552 and 553: 17.4. The Single-Particle Shell Mod
Page 554 and 555: 17.5. Generalization of the Single-
Page 556 and 557: 17.6. Isobaric Analog Resonances 53
Page 558 and 559: 17.7. Nuclei Far From the Valley of
Page 560 and 561: 17.8. References 539 An elementary
Page 562 and 563: 17.8. References 541 (b) N odd. (c)
Page 564 and 565: Chapter 18 Collective Model Althoug
Page 566 and 567: 18.1. Nuclear Deformations 545 spin
Page 568 and 569: 18.2. Rotational Spectra of Spinles
Page 570 and 571: 18.2. Rotational Spectra of Spinles
Page 572 and 573: 18.3. Rotational Families 551 A spi
Page 574 and 575: 18.3. Rotational Families 553 2. Th
Page 576 and 577: 18.4. One-Particle Motion in Deform
Page 578 and 579: 18.4. One-Particle Motion in Deform
Page 580 and 581: 18.5. Vibrational States in Spheric
Page 582 and 583: 18.5. Vibrational States in Spheric
Page 584 and 585: 18.6. The Interacting Boson Model 5
Page 586 and 587: 18.7. Highly Excited States; Giant
Page 588 and 589: 18.8. Nuclear Models—Concluding R
Page 592 and 593: 18.9. References 571 J. S. Vaagen,
Page 594 and 595: 18.9. References 573 18.13. Verify
Page 596 and 597: 18.9. References 575 18.33. Conside
Page 598 and 599: 18.9. References 577 18.51. (a) In
Page 600 and 601: Chapter 19 Nuclear and Particle Ast
Page 602 and 603: 19.1. The Beginning of the Universe
Page 604 and 605: 19.1. The Beginning of the Universe
Page 606 and 607: 19.2. Primordial Nucleosynthesis 58
Page 608 and 609: 19.3. Stellar Energy and Nucleosynt
Page 614 and 615: 19.4. Stellar Collapse and Neutron
Page 616 and 617: 19.4. Stellar Collapse and Neutron
Page 618 and 619: 19.5. Cosmic Rays 597 We are consta
Page 620 and 621: 19.5. Cosmic Rays 599 Figure 19.11:
Page 622 and 623: 19.6. Neutrino Astronomy and Cosmol
Page 624 and 625: 19.8. References 603 baryon excess
Page 626 and 627: 19.8. References 605 Neutron Stars
Page 628 and 629: 19.8. References 607 (a) What is th
Page 630 and 631: Index Abundance, 585-586 Accelerato
Page 632 and 633: Index 611 drift chambers, 66-67 ele
Page 634 and 635: Index 613 diagrams, 279 electromagn
Page 636 and 637: Index 615 outlook, 567 Nuclear stru
Page 638 and 639: Index 617 poles, 494 recurrences, 4
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Index 619 TCP theorem, 269, 448 Tem
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