BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN'S HEALTH: MODERN ...

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careers in public health.” 304 Grant was instrumental in getting funding and approval for a midwifery school from the Rockefeller Foundation. He believed that the high infant mortality rate caused by tetanus neonatorum was “one of the outstanding public health problems” facing China, and it was easily controllable by creating midwifery training programs. 305 Grant noted that several governmental and private midwifery schools had been established in China in the previous 15 years, but that the best government-run one (in Taiyuanfu, Shansi province) “would not qualify for the lowest standards of midwifery schools in northern Europe.” 306 The private schools run by Hackett Medical School in Guangzhou and St. Elizabeth’s in Shanghai produced “moderately well-trained graduates.” 307 He repeatedly prodded the Rockefeller Foundation’s International Health Division to support and fund the fledgling First National Midwifery School. Marion Yang, founder and head of the FNMS, credits her dedication to improving maternal and child health to the tireless work of John Grant. He helped her to win a fellowship for study at Johns Hopkins University and travel abroad, and he continued supporting and encouraging Yang in her efforts. 308 Marion Yang was the pioneer of midwifery training in Republican China, and no other person was as instrumental in creating a legitimate midwifery profession. Yang was born in 1891 to what Yang herself characterized as a relatively well-off “middle peasant” (zhongnong 中农) family, though her family was obviously not of the peasant class. 309 Her father was considered a genius because he had obtained the xiucai (county level imperial examination) degree at the age of 16 and passed the provincial exams (zhongju) at age 18. Her mother was the 304 Ibid., 203-4. 305 John B. Grant, letter to Victor Heiser, September 20, 1926. 306 John B. Grant, "Midwifery Training." 307 Ibid. 308 Chongrui Yang, "Wo De Zizhuan,” 147-48. 309 The bulk of this section is taken from an autobigraphical sketch, Yang Chongrui, “Wo de Zizhuan.” 121
third wife and came from a rich family. Her elder brother was a teacher, the second oldest a farmer, and the third oldest a surgeon. In her memoirs, Yang recounts disliking visits to her mother’s family when she was young because of all the “cumbersome formalities.” She much preferred the poor family of her second eldest brother’s wife, where she felt much more freedom. In the “foggy recollections” of her youth, she felt the dissonance between rich and poor early on. 310 Yang’s educational opportunities were remarkable because of her intelligence and her family background. When Yang was four or five years old, she started learning Chinese characters at home with the use of flash cards and books. After an interlude at a local primary school beginning at age seven, Yang entered grade school in Beijing at age 13 and then went on to high school there. She graduated from Women’s Union Medical College (a precursor to PUMC) in 1917 and went to Shandong province and to Tianjin to work as a general practitioner. She returned to PUMC in 1920 with the intention of taking one year each of surgery, OB/GYN, and ophthalmology, but after only six months of research in OB/GYN, PUMC offered her the opportunity to specialize in this field. As part of her training, she worked in a small urban clinic where she gave prenatal care to pregnant factory workers and introduced them to a hospital where they could give birth. She then helped to establish a small prenatal clinic at Qihuamenwai, Yang’s first seed of community maternal and child health work. By that time, PUMC’s public health program had just started (in 1921) and was in its infancy. Yang lamented that no one at that time had a clear idea of how to go about improving maternal and child health, but a few experiences solidified her commitment to community maternal and child health work. The first incident occurred when a pregnant woman came to her 310 Yang, “Wo de Zizhuan,” 143. 122
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BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN
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Copyright © by Tina Phillips 2006
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family and community. This research
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LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Curriculum for t
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PREFACE This work would have not be
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healthy, intelligent, male offsprin
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New midwives (zhuchanshi 助产士,
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traditional Chinese medical profess
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Republican and Nationalist eras (19
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the Rockefeller Foundation, one of
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unscientific jumble of superstition
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maternal and child health care cent
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uilding efforts after the fall of t
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ways, imports, Chinese medical univ
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IMPERIALISM Some have argued that W
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modern medicine as soon as it was a
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In addition to the culturally imper
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(1927-1937), the Nationalist govern
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irths were attended by untrained mi
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Communist Party’s “barefoot doc
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more important in making government
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CHAPTER ONE. LAYING THE FOUNDATION:
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Well into the twentieth century, mo
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pamphlets like Infant Care and Pren
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This ideal of aseptic births to dec
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medical beliefs. 73 Furthermore, so
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y the Rockefeller Foundation’s Ch
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named the Turner Training School fo
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Cochrane subsequently convinced Cix
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Medical Missionary Society. Dr. Mai
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Hongzhang to help his struggling ho
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clinic at the temple, I presume for
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It later became the Beiyang Naval M
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and college continued jointly by th
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sent her sons to the mission school
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nationalist reforms. A group of Nan
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College for Women in Peking (establ
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medical colleges with a national st
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critical of the quality of the Chin
Page 79 and 80: Boxer indemnity money that the Unit
Page 81 and 82: CHAPTER TWO. MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AN
Page 83 and 84: authority that had previously been
Page 85 and 86: After the start of the Nationalist
Page 87 and 88: schools. The 28 medical schools in
Page 89 and 90: crisis in maternal and child health
Page 91 and 92: the only course for China to take i
Page 93 and 94: The maternity ward practice grouped
Page 95 and 96: was established for nurses to recei
Page 97 and 98: Department of Education in 1931. Du
Page 99 and 100: Furthermore, it was hard to get qua
Page 101 and 102: were established for each 50,000 pe
Page 103 and 104: Health Administration offered a gra
Page 105 and 106: Chen did institute successful progr
Page 107 and 108: February 1936, they surveyed 1,000
Page 109 and 110: as “Maternity and Child Health He
Page 111 and 112: 卫生模范区) was begun in 1927
Page 113 and 114: 1930s, the following schools were e
Page 115 and 116: midwife or physician in attendance,
Page 117 and 118: in a “foreign style” and funded
Page 119 and 120: and controlled by the state. As soo
Page 121 and 122: standards or else shut them down. A
Page 123 and 124: 6. If, after a birth, there is bloo
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER THREE. THE JIESHENGPO MEET
Page 127 and 128: physicians. Thus, Marion Yang’s m
Page 129: Hopkins served as the model for med
Page 133 and 134: However, Yang was drawn to the plig
Page 135 and 136: During the next section (January to
Page 137 and 138: addition, Beiping would be the muni
Page 139 and 140: $67,608, of which $38,080 was suppl
Page 141 and 142: course schools” throughout China.
Page 143 and 144: Table 3.1: Curriculum for the Two-Y
Page 145 and 146: Table 3.2: Curriculum for the Six-M
Page 147 and 148: The first class opened in July 1931
Page 149 and 150: “poor theoretical instruction.”
Page 151 and 152: sessions given by an obstetrician o
Page 153 and 154: Buddhist” contributed $1,000 to t
Page 155 and 156: school wished to train them in fill
Page 157 and 158: in the city, undertaking periodical
Page 159 and 160: efresher courses each for local mod
Page 161 and 162: conditions.” 382 Furthermore, the
Page 163 and 164: educational visits to instruct moth
Page 165 and 166: section. They accompanied the atten
Page 167 and 168: of discharge from the hospital, one
Page 169 and 170: Midwifery School and a key player i
Page 171 and 172: November 25-December 8), Zhangzhou
Page 173 and 174: Suiyuan 3 Hebei 50 Shaanxi 3 Shando
Page 175 and 176: deaths. At the hospital that year,
Page 177 and 178: New Cases Return Visits Table 3.6:
Page 179 and 180: However, the largest number of wome
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Marion Yang and the First National
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egistration of births. In this way,
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In his book on professionals in Rep
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three-quarters of the profession, b
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MEDICAL PROFESSIONALIZATION IN CHIN
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applied their organizational struct
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participate in any scheme which pre
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THE CHINA MEDICAL BOARD AND PEKING
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health policy. In fact, in the 1930
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future, since one-third of present
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Local midwifery organizations could
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supported career woman. Several con
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Bethel trained nurse-evangelists to
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Mission Hospital of Nanjing. She ta
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Field Health Station and the FNMS,
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pharmaceutics. According to Peabody
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social standing in their community.
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leaders penned treatises on the imp
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traditional Chinese and/or scientif
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the rate was probably higher in urb
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Ono Kazuko’s translation reads,
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therefore they had less life- and s
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to oneself could be passed on to on
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give the fetus favorable emotional
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weak nations of the East, but we ca
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Figure 5.1: Advertisement for Dr. W
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Figure 5.2: Advertisement for Japan
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major impact on health policy and a
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and hat. She has the images and doc
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Figure 5.5: Monthly position of pre
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we can see in Figure 5.6 a clothesl
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A similar organization in Changsha,
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Articles about these clubs in Weste
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we can see a struggle not just over
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Figure 5.8: Tuqiang Advanced Midwif
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Along with images of people, these
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Figure 5.10: Guangzhou Municipal Ho
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MODERN CURRICULA The curricula that
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- Simpson’s straight perforator -
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wonders how a jieshengpo could have
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elieve pregnancy discomfort. Furthe
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CONCLUSION Childbirth in China unde
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often moved around for jobs or took
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My research ends in 1937 at the Jap
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1941, she helped to establish Sichu
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centers that included maternal and
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those trained were midwives or “y
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all women go to hospitals to have t
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examinations, supine position, and
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APPENDIX A RULES GOVERNING THE ADMI
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d. Make investigation into existing
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Andrew. The Sys
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"Bulletin of the Hackett Medical Co
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Franklin, Sarah. "Postmodern Procre
Page 289 and 290:
Ingram, Ruth. "Midwifery Training,"
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Maxwell, J. Preston. “Scheme for
Page 293 and 294:
Rogaski, Ruth. "Hygenic Modernity i
Page 295 and 296:
Verdery, Katherine. "From Parent-St
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